Transport properties of valsartan, sacubitril and its active metabolite (LBQ657) as determinants of disposition.

1. The potential for drug-drug interactions of LCZ696 (a novel, crystalline complex comprising sacubitril and valsartan) was investigated in vitro. 2. Sacubitril was shown to be a highly permeable P-glycoprotein (P-gp) substrate and was hydrolyzed to the active anionic metabolite LBQ657 by human carboxylesterase 1 (CES1b and 1c). The multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) was shown to be capable of LBQ657 and valsartan transport that contributes to the elimination of either compound. 3. LBQ657 and valsartan were transported by OAT1, OAT3, OATP1B1 and OATP1B3, whereas no OAT- or OATP-mediated sacubitril transport was observed. 4. The contribution of OATP1B3 to valsartan transport (73%) was appreciably higher than that by OATP1B1 (27%), Alternatively, OATP1B1 contribution to the hepatic uptake of LBQ657 (∼70%) was higher than that by OATP1B3 (∼30%). 5. None of the compounds inhibited OCT1/OCT2, MATE1/MATE2-K, P-gp, or BCRP. Sacubitril and LBQ657 inhibited OAT3 but not OAT1, and valsartan inhibited the activity of both OAT1 and OAT3. Sacubitril and valsartan inhibited OATP1B1 and OATP1B3, whereas LBQ657 weakly inhibited OATP1B1 but not OATP1B3. 6. Drug interactions due to the inhibition of transporters are unlikely due to the redundancy of the available transport pathways (LBQ657: OATP1B1/OAT1/3 and valsartan: OATP1B3/OAT1/3) and the low therapeutic concentration of the LCZ696 analytes.

Phosphate uptake-independent signaling functions of the type III sodium-dependent phosphate transporter, PiT-1, in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Vascular calcification (VC) is prevalent in chronic kidney disease and elevated serum inorganic phosphate (Pi) is a recognized risk factor. The type III sodium-dependent phosphate transporter, PiT-1, is required for elevated Pi-induced osteochondrogenic differentiation and matrix mineralization in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). However, the molecular mechanism(s) by which PiT-1 promotes these processes is unclear. In the present study, we confirmed that the Pi concentration required to induce osteochondrogenic differentiation and matrix mineralization of mouse VSMCs was well above that required for maximal Pi uptake, suggesting a signaling function of PiT-1 that was independent of Pi transport. Elevated Pi-induced signaling via ERK1/2 phosphorylation was abrogated in PiT-1 deficient VSMCs, but could be rescued by wild-type (WT) and a Pi transport-deficient PiT-1 mutant. Furthermore, both WT and transport-deficient PiT-1 mutants promoted osteochondrogenic differentiation as measured by decreased SM22α and increased osteopontin mRNA expression. Finally, compared to vector alone, expression of transport-deficient PiT-1 mutants promoted VSMC matrix mineralization, but not to the extent observed with PiT-1 WT. These data suggest that both Pi uptake-dependent and -independent functions of PiT-1 are important for VSMC processes mediating vascular calcification.

Sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporters and phosphate-induced calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells: redundant roles for PiT-1 and PiT-2.

OBJECTIVE: Elevated serum phosphate has emerged as a major risk factor for vascular calcification. The sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter, PiT-1, was previously shown to be required for phosphate-induced osteogenic differentiation and calcification of cultured human vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), but its importance in vascular calcification in vivo and the potential role of its homologue, PiT-2, have not been determined. We investigated the in vivo requirement for PiT-1 in vascular calcification using a mouse model of chronic kidney disease and the potential compensatory role of PiT-2 using in vitro knockdown and overexpression strategies. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Mice with targeted deletion of PiT-1 in VSMCs were generated (PiT-1(Δsm)). PiT-1 mRNA levels were undetectable, whereas PiT-2 mRNA levels were increased 2-fold in the vascular aortic media of PiT-1(Δsm) compared with PiT-1(flox/flox) control. When arterial medial calcification was induced in PiT-1(Δsm) and PiT-1(flox/flox) by chronic kidney disease followed by dietary phosphate loading, the degree of aortic calcification was not different between genotypes, suggesting compensation by PiT-2. Consistent with this possibility, VSMCs isolated from PiT-1(Δsm) mice had no PiT-1 mRNA expression, increased PiT-2 mRNA levels, and no difference in sodium-dependent phosphate uptake or phosphate-induced matrix calcification compared with PiT-1(flox/flox) VSMCs. Knockdown of PiT-2 decreased phosphate uptake and phosphate-induced calcification of PiT-1(Δsm) VSMCs. Furthermore, overexpression of PiT-2 restored these parameters in human PiT-1-deficient VSMCs. CONCLUSIONS: PiT-2 can mediate phosphate uptake and calcification of VSMCs in the absence of PiT-1. Mechanistically, PiT-1 and PiT-2 seem to serve redundant roles in phosphate-induced calcification of VSMCs.

Fibroblast growth factor 23 is not associated with and does not induce arterial calcification.

Elevated fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is associated with cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease. As a potential mediating mechanism, FGF23 induces left ventricular hypertrophy; however, its role in arterial calcification is less clear. In order to study this, we quantified coronary artery and thoracic aorta calcium by computed tomography in 1501 patients from the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) study within a median of 376 days (interquartile range 331-420 days) of baseline. Baseline plasma FGF23 was not associated with the prevalence or severity of coronary artery calcium after multivariable adjustment. In contrast, higher serum phosphate levels were associated with prevalence and severity of coronary artery calcium, even after adjustment for FGF23. Neither FGF23 nor serum phosphate were consistently associated with thoracic aorta calcium. We could not detect mRNA expression of FGF23 or its coreceptor, klotho, in human or mouse vascular smooth muscle cells, or normal or calcified mouse aorta. Whereas elevated phosphate concentrations induced calcification in vitro, FGF23 had no effect on phosphate uptake or phosphate-induced calcification regardless of phosphate concentration or even in the presence of soluble klotho. Thus, in contrast to serum phosphate, FGF23 is not associated with arterial calcification and does not promote calcification experimentally. Hence, phosphate and FGF23 promote cardiovascular disease through distinct mechanisms.

Development and characterization of transgenic mouse models for conditional gene knockout in the blood-brain and blood-CSF barriers.

For many CNS acting drugs, penetration into the central nervous system (CNS) is limited by the blood-CNS-barriers. In an effort to quantitate the role of the protein components that make up the blood-CNS-barriers, we created transgenic mice that allow conditional gene knockout using Cre/loxP technology. We targeted the expression of Cre-recombinase to the choroid plexus (the blood-cerebral spinal fluid barrier) using the lymphotropic papovavirus control region (LPVcr) and to brain endothelium (the blood-brain-barrier) using the proximal promoter region of the human von Willebrand Factor gene (hVWF-f). We verified that LPVcr restricts expression to the choroid plexus in adult mice by using the LPVcr to drive n-LacZ expression in transgenic mice. The LPV-Cre and hVWF-Cre plasmids were then constructed and tested for Cre-recombinase function in vitro, and subsequently used to create transgenic mice. The resulting transgenic mice were characterized for cell-type specific Cre-mediated endonuclease activity by crossing them with transgenic mice containing a loxP-flanked-LacZ/EGFP dual reporter gene Z/EG. The dual Cre-Z/EG transgenic offspring were evaluated for the location of EGFP mRNA expression by reverse transcriptase PCR and for protein expression by immunohistochemistry. Immunohistochemistry for EGFP verified expression in the target cells, and no ectopic expression outside of the expected cell types. The LPV-Cre.0607 transgenic line expressed functional Cre only in the choroid plexus and hVWF-Cre.1304 line in brain endothelium.

Arterial calcification in chronic kidney disease: key roles for calcium and phosphate.

Vascular calcification contributes to the high risk of cardiovascular mortality in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. Dysregulation of calcium (Ca) and phosphate (P) metabolism is common in CKD patients and drives vascular calcification. In this article, we review the physiological regulatory mechanisms for Ca and P homeostasis and the basis for their dysregulation in CKD. In addition, we highlight recent findings indicating that elevated Ca and P have direct effects on vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) that promote vascular calcification, including stimulation of osteogenic/chondrogenic differentiation, vesicle release, apoptosis, loss of inhibitors, and extracellular matrix degradation. These studies suggest a major role for elevated P in promoting osteogenic/chondrogenic differentiation of VSMC, whereas elevated Ca has a predominant role in promoting VSMC apoptosis and vesicle release. Furthermore, the effects of elevated Ca and P are synergistic, providing a major stimulus for vascular calcification in CKD. Unraveling the complex regulatory pathways that mediate the effects of both Ca and P on VSMCs will ultimately provide novel targets and therapies to limit the destructive effects of vascular calcification in CKD patients.

A novel MDR1 GT1292-3TG (Cys431Leu) genetic variation and its effect on P-glycoprotein biologic functions.

P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is a membrane-bound transporter protein that is encoded by the human multidrug resistance gene MDR1 (ABCB1). P-gp recognizes a wide range of xenobiotics, is pivotal in mediating cancer drug resistance, and plays an important role in limiting drug penetration across the blood-brain barrier. MDR1 genetic variation can lead to changes in P-gp function and may have implications on drug pharmacokinetics. We have identified a novel MDR1 (GT1292-3TG) (Cys431Leu) genetic variation through systematic profiling of subjects with leukemia. The cellular and transport function of this variation was investigated with recombinant human embryonic kidney cells expressing MDR1. Compared with the wild type, MDR1 (GT1292-3TG) recombinant cells exhibited a lower drug resistance phenotype for a panel of chemotherapeutic agents. When compared with wild type, MDR1 (GT1292-3TG) recombinant cells exposed exhibited a 75% decrease in IC50 for doxorubicin (162.6 ± 17.4 to 37.9 ± 2.6 nM) and a 50% decrease in IC(50) for paclitaxel (155.7 ± 27.5 to 87.7 ± 9.2 nM), vinblastine (128.0 ± 15.9 to 65.9 ± 5.1 nM), and vincristine (593.7 ± 61.8 to 307.3 ± 17.0 nM). The effects of the Cys431Leu variation, due to MDR1 (GT1292-3TG) nucleotide transition, on P-gp-dependent intracellular substrate accumulation appeared to be substrate dependent where doxorubicin, vinblastine, and paclitaxel exhibit an increased accumulation (p < 0.05), while verapamil and Hoechst33342 exhibit a decreased intracellular concentration compared with wild type (p < 0.05). Collectively, these data suggest MDR1 (GT1292-3TG) variation of P-gp may reduce drug resistance and that subjects with this genotype undergoing chemotherapy with drugs that are transported by P-gp could potentially be more responsive to therapy than those with MDR1 wild-type genotype.

MDR1 (ABCB1) G1199A (Ser400Asn) polymorphism alters transepithelial permeability and sensitivity to anticancer agents.

PURPOSE: P-glycoprotein (P-gp), encoded by MDR1 (or ABCB1), is important in anticancer drug delivery and resistance. We evaluated alterations in P-gp-mediated transport of anticancer agents due to the MDR1 G1199A polymorphism. METHODS: Using stable recombinant epithelial cells expressing wild-type (MDR1 (wt)) or G1199A (MDR1 (1199A)), anticancer drug sensitivity and transepithelial permeability were evaluated. RESULTS: The recombinant cells MDR1 (wt) and MDR1 ( 1199A ) displayed comparable doxorubicin resistance. However, MDR1 (1199A) cells displayed greater resistance to vinblastine, vincristine, paclitaxel, and VP-16 (11-, 2.9-, 1.9-, and 2.9-fold, respectively). Alterations in transepithelial permeability paralleled these changes. Efflux of doxorubicin was similar between MDR1 wt - and MDR1 (1199A)-expressing cells, while P-gp-mediated transport was greater for vinblastine and vincristine in MDR1 (1199A) cells (2.9- and 2.0-fold, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The occurrence and magnitude of the MDR1 G1199A effect is drug specific. Overall, the MDR1 G1199A polymorphism may impact anticancer efficacy through modulation of drug distribution and delivery to target tumor cells.

A novel MDR1 G1199T variant alters drug resistance and efflux transport activity of P-glycoprotein in recombinant Hek cells.

The human multidrug resistance gene MDR1 encodes the protein product P-glycoprotein (P-gp). P-gp is an integral membrane protein which mediates ATP-dependent substrate efflux. We recently discovered a novel G --> T variant at 1199 nucleotide position of MDR1 which exhibits a 2.3% allelic frequency in leukemia patients. The functional effects of this MDR1-G1199T variant were evaluated with recombinant HEK cells that stably express the wild-type, G1199A, or G1199T variant of the MDR1 protein, P-gp, at comparable levels. A panel of cytotoxic P-gp substrates comprising doxorubicin, vinblastine, vincristine, paclitaxel, or topotecan (a poor P-gp substrate) was used to evaluate the functional impact of G1199 variations. Compared to MDR1(wt), MDR1(G1199A) exhibited an increased resistance to doxorubicin, paclitaxel, vinblastine, and vincristine. In contrast, MDR1(G1199T) reduced resistance to (1/4) that of MDR1(wt) for all drugs except topotecan. Expression of MDR1 exhibits some degree of resistance to topotecan, but 1199 variation has no impact. These data were consistent with the variation in intracellular doxorubicin concentrations measured in MDR1 recombinant cells. Our results suggest that patients with the novel MDR1-G1199T variant may exhibit a lower degree of MDR1 dependent chemoresistance, and those with the G1199A polymorphism may exhibit a higher degree of resistance, compared with MDR1 wild-type patients.