Hearing Loss in Children with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome.

OBJECTIVES: Hearing loss is considered common in children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS), with a few prior studies reporting a 32%-78% prevalence; mild-moderate conductive hearing loss has been reported most commonly. Overall, however, there remains a paucity of data regarding the frequency, type, age, and progression of hearing loss in children with 22q11.2DS. METHODS: Retrospective chart review was completed, and data combined for two large 22q centers. Inclusion criteria were children with 22q11.2DS and a documented audiogram. Data extracted included a laboratory-confirmed chromosome 22q11.2 deletion; co-morbidities; results of all audiograms and radiologic temporal bone imaging; and otologic surgical procedures. RESULTS: One thousand seven hundred sixty-nine charts were reviewed; 775 met inclusion criteria. Of these, 563 (73%) children had at least one abnormal audiogram demonstrating hearing loss. A total of 2,536 audiograms were reviewed; 74% of these showed abnormal hearing in at least one ear. Most of the hearing loss was conductive (right ear 76%; left ear 69%) and mild severity. For the children with SNHL, 90% of all follow-up audiograms were stable without progression. Hearing loss was identified across all pediatric age ranges. Ear tube placement occurred in 39% of children. CONCLUSION: This study confirms the high incidence of hearing loss for children with 22q11.2DS at some point in their childhood. In our cohort, hearing loss occurred in 73% of children and was most often conductive and mild in severity. The results highlight the importance of otolaryngology and audiology involvement in managing children with 22q11.2DS for timely diagnosis and treatment of hearing loss. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4 Laryngoscope, 2024.

Neurocognitive profiles of 22q11.2 and 16p11.2 deletions and duplications.

Rare recurrent copy number variants (CNVs) at chromosomal loci 22q11.2 and 16p11.2 are genetic disorders with lifespan risk for neuropsychiatric disorders. Microdeletions and duplications are associated with neurocognitive deficits, yet few studies compared these groups using the same measures to address confounding measurement differences. We report a prospective international collaboration applying the same computerized neurocognitive assessment, the Penn Computerized Neurocognitive Battery (CNB), administered in a multi-site study on rare genomic disorders: 22q11.2 deletions (n = 492); 22q11.2 duplications (n = 106); 16p11.2 deletion (n = 117); and 16p11.2 duplications (n = 46). Domains examined include executive functions, episodic memory, complex cognition, social cognition, and psychomotor speed. Accuracy and speed for each domain were included as dependent measures in a mixed-model repeated measures analysis. Locus (22q11.2, 16p11.2) and Copy number (deletion/duplication) were grouping factors and Measure (accuracy, speed) and neurocognitive domain were repeated measures factors, with Sex and Site as covariates. We also examined correlation with IQ. We found a significant Locus × Copy number × Domain × Measure interaction (p = 0.0004). 22q11.2 deletions were associated with greater performance accuracy deficits than 22q11.2 duplications, while 16p11.2 duplications were associated with greater specific deficits than 16p11.2 deletions. Duplications at both loci were associated with reduced speed compared to deletions. Performance profiles differed among the groups with particularly poor memory performance of the 22q11.2 deletion group while the 16p11.2 duplication group had greatest deficits in complex cognition. Average accuracy on the CNB was moderately correlated with Full Scale IQ. Deletions and duplications of 22q11.2 and 16p11.2 have differential effects on accuracy and speed of neurocognition indicating locus specificity of performance profiles. These profile differences can help inform mechanistic substrates to heterogeneity in presentation and outcome, and can only be established in large-scale international consortia using the same neurocognitive assessment. Future studies could aim to link performance profiles to clinical features and brain function.

Updated clinical practice recommendations for managing adults with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

This review aimed to update the clinical practice guidelines for managing adults with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS). The 22q11.2 Society recruited expert clinicians worldwide to revise the original clinical practice guidelines for adults in a stepwise process according to best practices: (1) a systematic literature search (1992-2021), (2) study selection and synthesis by clinical experts from 8 countries, covering 24 subspecialties, and (3) formulation of consensus recommendations based on the literature and further shaped by patient advocate survey results. Of 2441 22q11.2DS-relevant publications initially identified, 2344 received full-text review, with 2318 meeting inclusion criteria (clinical care relevance to 22q11.2DS) including 894 with potential relevance to adults. The evidence base remains limited. Thus multidisciplinary recommendations represent statements of current best practice for this evolving field, informed by the available literature. These recommendations provide guidance for the recognition, evaluation, surveillance, and management of the many emerging and chronic 22q11.2DS-associated multisystem morbidities relevant to adults. The recommendations also address key genetic counseling and psychosocial considerations for the increasing numbers of adults with this complex condition.

Updated clinical practice recommendations for managing children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

This review aimed to update the clinical practice guidelines for managing children and adolescents with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS). The 22q11.2 Society, the international scientific organization studying chromosome 22q11.2 differences and related conditions, recruited expert clinicians worldwide to revise the original 2011 pediatric clinical practice guidelines in a stepwise process: (1) a systematic literature search (1992-2021), (2) study selection and data extraction by clinical experts from 9 different countries, covering 24 subspecialties, and (3) creation of a draft consensus document based on the literature and expert opinion, which was further shaped by survey results from family support organizations regarding perceived needs. Of 2441 22q11.2DS-relevant publications initially identified, 2344 received full-text reviews, including 1545 meeting criteria for potential relevance to clinical care of children and adolescents. Informed by the available literature, recommendations were formulated. Given evidence base limitations, multidisciplinary recommendations represent consensus statements of good practice for this evolving field. These recommendations provide contemporary guidance for evaluation, surveillance, and management of the many 22q11.2DS-associated physical, cognitive, behavioral, and psychiatric morbidities while addressing important genetic counseling and psychosocial issues.

Prenatal Screening and Diagnostic Considerations for 22q11.2 Microdeletions.

Diagnosis of a chromosome 22q11.2 microdeletion and its associated deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) is optimally made early. We reviewed the available literature to provide contemporary guidance and recommendations related to the prenatal period. Indications for prenatal diagnostic testing include a parent or child with the 22q11.2 microdeletion or suggestive prenatal screening results. Definitive diagnosis by genetic testing of chorionic villi or amniocytes using a chromosomal microarray will detect clinically relevant microdeletions. Screening options include noninvasive prenatal screening (NIPS) and imaging. The potential benefits and limitations of each screening method should be clearly conveyed. NIPS, a genetic option available from 10 weeks gestational age, has a 70-83% detection rate and a 40-50% PPV for most associated 22q11.2 microdeletions. Prenatal imaging, usually by ultrasound, can detect several physical features associated with 22q11.2DS. Findings vary, related to detection methods, gestational age, and relative specificity. Conotruncal cardiac anomalies are more strongly associated than skeletal, urinary tract, or other congenital anomalies such as thymic hypoplasia or cavum septi pellucidi dilatation. Among others, intrauterine growth restriction and polyhydramnios are additional associated, prenatally detectable signs. Preconception genetic counselling should be offered to males and females with 22q11.2DS, as there is a 50% risk of transmission in each pregnancy. A previous history of a de novo 22q11.2 microdeletion conveys a low risk of recurrence. Prenatal genetic counselling includes an offer of screening or diagnostic testing and discussion of results. The goal is to facilitate optimal perinatal care.

Improved Outcomes in Patients with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome and Diagnosis of Interrupted Aortic Arch Prior to Birth Hospital Discharge, a Retrospective Study.

Interruption of the aortic arch (IAA) is a rare but life-threatening congenital heart defect if not corrected in the neonatal period. IAA type B is highly correlated with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS); approximately 50% of patients with IAA type B also have 22q11.2DS (Peyvandi et al.; Goldmuntz et al.). Early identification and repair of IAA can prevent severe morbidity and death. However, IAA is challenging to identify prenatally, or even in the neonatal period. In this study, we examined infants with IAA, diagnosed during pregnancy and prior to discharge (PPTD) from the birth hospital vs. those diagnosed following discharge (FD) from the newborn nursery. Our goals were to determine: (1) if early diagnosis improved outcomes; and (2) if patients with IAA and without 22q11.2DS had similar outcomes. In total, 135 patients with a diagnosis of 22q11.2DS and IAA were ascertained through the 22q and You Center at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP). The examined outcomes included: timing of diagnosis; age at diagnosis (days); hospital length of stay (LOS); duration of intensive care unit (ICU) stay; mechanical ventilation (days); duration of inotrope administration (days); year of surgical intervention; birth hospital trauma level; and overall morbidity. These outcomes were then compared with 40 CHOP patients with IAA but without 22q11.2DS. The results revealed that the PPTD neonates had fewer days of intubation, inotrope administration, and hospital LOS when compared to the FD group. The outcomes between deleted and non-deleted individuals with IAA differed significantly, in terms of the LOS (40 vs. 39 days) and time in ICU (28 vs. 24 days), respectively. These results support the early detection of 22q11.2DS via prenatal screening/diagnostics/newborn screening, as IAA can evade routine prenatal ultrasound and postnatal pulse oximetry. However, as previously reported in patients with 22q11.2DS and congenital heart disease (CHD), patients with 22q11.2DS tend to fare poorer compared to non-deleted neonates with IAA.

Relationship between intelligence quotient measures and computerized neurocognitive performance in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

Intelligence quotient (IQ) testing is standard for evaluating cognitive abilities in genomic studies but requires professional expertise in administration and interpretation, and IQ scores do not translate into insights on implicated brain systems that can link genes to behavior. Individuals with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) often undergo IQ testing to address special needs, but access to testing in resource-limited settings is challenging. The brief Penn Computerized Neurocognitive Battery (CNB) provides measures of cognitive abilities related to brain systems and can screen for cognitive dysfunction. To examine the relation between CNB measures and IQ, we evaluated participants with the 22q11.2DS from Philadelphia and Tel Aviv (N = 117; 52 females; mean age 18.8) who performed both an IQ test and the CNB with a maximum of 5 years between administrations and a subsample (n = 24) who had both IQ and CNB assessments at two time points. We estimated domain-level CNB scores using exploratory factor analysis (including bifactor for overall scores) and related those scores (intraclass correlations (ICCs)) to the IQ scores. We found that the overall CNB accuracy score showed similar correlations between time 1 and time 2 as IQ (0.775 for IQ and 0.721 for CNB accuracy), correlated well with the IQ scores (ICC = 0.565 and 0.593 for time 1 and time 2, respectively), and correlated similarly with adaptive functioning (0.165 and 0.172 for IQ and CNB, respectively). We provide a crosswalk (from linear equating) between standardized CNB and IQ scores. Results suggest that one can substitute the CNB for IQ testing in future genetic studies that aim to probe specific domains of brain-behavior relations beyond IQ.

Early language measures associated with later psychosis features in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is associated with impaired cognitive functions and increased risk for schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Speech and language deficits are prominent, with evidence of decline anteceding emergence of psychosis. There is paucity of data examining language function in children with 22q11DS with follow-up assessment of psychosis spectrum (PS) symptoms. We examined the association between early language measures, obtained clinically, and PS status, obtained on average 10.1 years later, in 166 youths with 22q11DS, with repeated language testing in 48. Participants were administered the Preschool Language Scale (receptive/expressive), and/or, for school aged children, the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (receptive/expressive), and age appropriate IQ tests. The structured interview for prodromal syndromes (SIPS) assessed PS symptoms. We found that performance on all preschool measures showed age associated decline, and males performed more poorly on core composite (receptive/expressive) and receptive language measures. For language assessment later in childhood, poorer performance was consistently associated with subsequent PS status. Furthermore, steeper age-related decline was seen in the PS group across language measures and marginally for full-scale IQ. These findings suggest that while preschool language testing is useful in characterizing performance decline in individuals with 22q11DS, it does not robustly differentiate those with subsequent PS from those without. However, language testing in the school age population can help identify individuals with 22q11DS who are at risk for psychosis. Such data are needed for elucidating a lifespan trajectory for affected individuals and may help understand pathways to psychosis applicable to the general population.

Association of hypocalcemia with congenital heart disease in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

Hypocalcemia is one of the cardinal features of the chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS), the most common cause of DiGeorge syndrome. Hypocalcemia and other features of 22q11.2DS including congenital heart disease (CHD) are primarily ascribed to problems with morphogenesis and function of the pharyngeal arch system derivatives including the parathyroid glands, the aortic arch, and the cardiac outflow tract. In light of the aforementioned embryology, we hypothesized that hypocalcemia would be identified more frequently in those patients with 22q11.2DS and CHD. We conducted a retrospective IRB approved chart review on 1,300 subjects with 22q11.2DS evaluated at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. χ2 test was used to evaluate the statistical significance of differences in hypocalcemia between the two groups. Eight hundred fifty-two patients had calcium levels available for review. Of these, 466 (54.69%) had a history of hypocalcemia and 550 (64.55%) had CHD. Of those with CHD, 343 (62.36%) had a history of hypocalcemia, and of those without CHD, only 123 (40.73%) had a history of hypocalcemia. Thus, the frequency of diagnosed hypocalcemia was greater in patients with 22q11.2DS and CHD as compared to those without CHD (p < .001). We also analyzed age of onset of hypocalcemia and found that 66.47% of CHD/hypocalcemia group had neonatal/infantile hypocalcemia versus 43.09% in the non-CHD/hypocalcemia group. In our large cohort of patients with 22q11.2DS, the prevalence of diagnosed hypocalcemia is elevated among patients with CHD, in whom it is more likely to be diagnosed during the neonatal/infancy period.

Expanding the fetal phenotype: Prenatal sonographic findings and perinatal outcomes in a cohort of patients with a confirmed 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

22q deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) is most often correlated prenatally with congenital heart disease and or cleft palate. The extracardiac fetal phenotype associated with 22q11.2DS is not well described. We sought to review both the fetal cardiac and extracardiac findings associated with a cohort of cases ascertained prenatally, confirmed or suspected to have 22q11.2DS, born and cared for in one center. A retrospective chart review was performed on a total of 42 cases with confirmed 22q11.2DS to obtain prenatal findings, perinatal outcomes and diagnostic confirmation. The diagnosis was confirmed prenatally in 67% (28/42) and postnatally in 33% (14/42). The majority (81%) were associated with the standard LCR22A-LCR22D deletion. 95% (40/42) of fetuses were prenatally diagnosed with congenital heart disease. Extracardiac findings were noted in 90% (38/42) of cases. Additional findings involved the central nervous system (38%), gastrointestinal (14%), genitourinary (16.6%), pulmonary (7%), skeletal (19%), facial dysmorphism (21%), small/hypoplastic thymus (26%), and polyhydramnios (30%). One patient was diagnosed prenatally with a bilateral cleft lip and cleft palate. No fetus was diagnosed with intrauterine growth restriction. The average gestational age at delivery was 38 weeks and average birth weight was 3,105 grams. Sixty-two percentage were delivered vaginally and there were no fetal demises. A diagnosis of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome should be considered in all cases of prenatally diagnosed congenital heart disease, particularly when it is not isolated. Microarray is warranted in all cases of structural abnormalities diagnosed prenatally. Prenatal diagnosis of 22q11.2 syndrome can be used to counsel expectant parents regarding pregnancy outcome and guide neonatal management.

Congenital heart diseases and cardiovascular abnormalities in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: From well-established knowledge to new frontiers.

Congenital heart diseases (CHDs) and cardiovascular abnormalities are one of the pillars of clinical diagnosis of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) and still represent the main cause of mortality in the affected children. In the past 30 years, much progress has been made in describing the anatomical patterns of CHD, in improving their diagnosis, medical treatment, and surgical procedures for these conditions, as well as in understanding the underlying genetic and developmental mechanisms. However, further studies are still needed to better determine the true prevalence of CHDs in 22q11.2DS, including data from prenatal studies and on the adult population, to further clarify the genetic mechanisms behind the high variability of phenotypic expression of 22q11.2DS, and to fully understand the mechanism responsible for the increased postoperative morbidity and for the premature death of these patients. Moreover, the increased life expectancy of persons with 22q11.2DS allowed the expansion of the adult population that poses new challenges for clinicians such as acquired cardiovascular problems and complexity related to multisystemic comorbidity. In this review, we provide a comprehensive review of the existing literature about 22q11.2DS in order to summarize the knowledge gained in the past years of clinical experience and research, as well as to identify the remaining gaps in comprehension of this syndrome and the possible future research directions.

Pediatric healthcare costs for patients with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome is a variably expressed disorder that can include cardiac, palate, and other physical abnormalities, immunodeficiency, and hypocalcemia. Because of the extreme variability in phenotype, there has been no available estimate of the total medical expenditure associated with the average case. METHODS: We have developed a model to estimate the cost from the time of diagnosis to age 20. Costs were based on patients seen at a specialty center but also considered those components of care expected to have been provided by external healthcare facilities. Expense was based on billed medical charges extracted from the electronic medical billing system for all patients with a diagnosis of DiGeorge or velocardiofacial syndrome from 1993-2015. Expenditures included maternal prenatal care directly related to an affected pregnancy, molecular/cytogenetic diagnosis, consultations, surgery, and/or other treatment and management. Most mental health services (except inpatient), therapy related to cognitive, behavioral, speech, pharmacy, and nonmedical costs (special education, vocational, respite, lost earnings) were not included. RESULTS: Data were available for 642 patients with 50.7% diagnosed prenatally or in the first year of life. The average cost for a patient was $727,178. Costs were highest for patients ascertained prenatally ($2,599,955) or in the first year of life ($1,043,096), those with cardiac abnormalities or referred for cardiac evaluation ($751,535), and patients with low T-cell counts ($1,382,222). CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that there are significant medical costs associated with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

Identification of 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome via Newborn Screening for Severe Combined Immunodeficiency.

PURPOSE: Chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS), the most common cause of DiGeorge syndrome, is quite variable. Neonatal diagnosis traditionally relies on recognition of classic features and cytogenetic testing, but many patients come to attention only following identification of later onset conditions, such as hypernasal speech due to palatal insufficiency and developmental and behavioral differences including speech delay, autism, and learning disabilities that would benefit from early interventions. Newborn screening (NBS) for severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is now identifying infants with 22q11.2DS due to T cell lymphopenia. Here, we report findings in such neonates, underscoring the efficacy of early diagnosis. METHODS: A retrospective chart review of 1350 patients with 22q11.2DS evaluated at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia identified 11 newborns with a positive NBS for SCID. RESULTS: Five out of 11 would have been diagnosed with 22q11.2DS without NBS, whereas early identification of 22q11.2DS in 6/11 led to the diagnosis of significant associated features including hypocalcemia, congenital heart disease (CHD), and gastroesophageal reflux disease that may have gone unrecognized and therefore untreated. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support rapidly screening infants with a positive NBS for SCID, but without SCID, for 22q11.2DS even when typically associated features such as CHD are absent, particularly when B cells and NK cells are normal. Moreover, direct NBS for 22q11.2DS using multiplex qPCR would be equally, if not more, beneficial, as early identification of 22q11.2DS will obviate a protracted diagnostic odyssey while providing an opportunity for timely assessment and interventions as needed, even in the absence of T cell lymphopenia.