Diminished trophoblast differentiation in early onset preeclampsia.

The mechanism by which human cytotrophoblast cells (CTB) differentiate into extravillous trophoblast cells (EVT) is an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Polarized CTB, anchored in an epithelial layer, are transformed into motile, non-polar EVT which invade the uterus. Our previous research has shown that over gestation, invasive first trimester EVT are converted to a non-invasive phenotype showing a reduced degree of EMT. We hypothesized that in an under-invasion pathology, such as early onset preeclampsia, third trimester EVT would display a less advanced EMT profile than controls. The goal of this study was to determine whether expression of EMT-associated genes in the EVT of early onset preeclamptics shows a less mesenchymal, more epithelial phenotype compared to control pregnancies. Measures of preeclamptic CTB and EVT gene expression, using highly purified cells from third trimester, early onset preeclamptics and gestational-age matched controls, showed clear evidence of a phenotypic pattern characteristic of an EMT. Comparison of preeclamptic EVT to gestational-age matched, control EVT demonstrated multiple changes in gene expression, including changes in well-known EMT gene markers, indicative of a more limited EMT. These changes are not explained by differences in the preeclamptic CTB precursors. In this first study of purified third trimester EVT, we show that the pattern of gene expression corresponding to EMT-associated differentiation is diminished in early onset preeclampsia. This provides a mechanistic framework for many of the molecular changes observed in preeclampsia and presents an opportunity for detailed studies of the pathways regulating the aberrant EMT and for potential biomarkers of the process.

Trophoblast invasion: Lessons from abnormally invasive placenta (placenta accreta).

The invasion of the uterine wall by extravillous trophoblast is acknowledged as a crucial component of the establishment of pregnancy however, the only part of this process that has been clearly identified is the differentiation of cytotrophoblast (CTB) into the invasive extravillous trophoblast (EVT). The control of invasion, both initiation and termination, have yet to be elucidated and even the mechanism of differentiation is unclear. This review describes our studies which are designed to characterize the intracellular mechanisms that drive differentiation. We have used the over-invasion observed in abnormally invasive placenta (AIP; placenta accreta) to further interrogate this mechanism. Our results show that first trimester CTB to EVT differentiation is accomplished via an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), with EVT displaying a metastable, mesenchymal phenotype. In the third trimester, while the invasiveness of the EVT is lost, these cells still demonstrate signs of the EMT, albeit diminished. EVT isolated from AIP pregnancies do not however, show the same degree of reduction in EMT shown by normal third trimester cells. They exhibit a more mesenchymal phenotype, consistent with a legacy of greater invasiveness. The master regulatory transcription factor controlling the EMT appears, from the observational data, to be ZEB2 (zinc finger E-box binding protein 2). We verified this by overexpressing ZEB2 in the BeWo and JEG3 trophoblast cell lines and showing that they became more stellate in shape, up-regulated the expression of EMT-associated genes and demonstrated a substantially increased degree of invasiveness. The identification of the differentiation mechanism will enable us to identify the factors controlling invasion and those aberrant processes which generate the abnormal invasion seen in pathologies such as AIP and preeclampsia.

MicroRNA-203a regulates pancreatic ß cell proliferation and apoptosis by targeting IRS2.

The main pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is autoimmune-mediated apoptosis of pancreatic islet ß cells. We sought to characterize the function of microRNA-203a (miR-203a) on pancreatic islet ß cell proliferation and apoptosis. In situ hybridization was used to detect the expression of miR-203a in islet ß cells in normal and hyperglycaemic non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. Cell proliferation was measured by cell counting kit eight and cell apoptosis was detected using flow cytometry. Insulin receptor substrate 2 (IRS2/Irs2) was determined to be a direct target of miR-203a by Luciferase reporter assay. We detected the effects of miR-203a overexpression or inhibition on proliferation and apoptosis of IRS2-overexpressing or IRS2-knockdown MIN6 cells respectively, and preliminarily explored the downstream targets of the IRS2 pathway. NOD mice model was used to detect miR-203a inhibitor treatment for diabetes. Our experiment showed miR-203a was upregulated in pancreatic ß cells of hyperglycaemic NOD mice. Elevated miR-203a expression inhibited the proliferation and promoted the apoptosis of MIN6 cells. IRS2/Irs2 is a novel target gene directly regulated by miR-203a and miR-203a overexpression downregulated the expression of IRS2. Irs2 silencing reduced cell proliferation and increased apoptosis. Irs2 overexpression could abolish the pro-apoptotic and anti-proliferative effects of miR-203a on MIN6 cells. Hyperglycemia in newly hyperglycemic NOD mice was under control after treatment with miR-203a inhibitor. Our study suggests that miR-203a regulates pancreatic ß cell proliferation and apoptosis by targeting IRS2, treatment with miR-203a inhibitors and IRS2 might provide a new therapeutic strategy for T1DM.

Allele-specific DNA methylation is increased in cancers and its dense mapping in normal plus neoplastic cells increases the yield of disease-associated regulatory SNPs.

BACKGROUND: Mapping of allele-specific DNA methylation (ASM) can be a post-GWAS strategy for localizing regulatory sequence polymorphisms (rSNPs). The advantages of this approach, and the mechanisms underlying ASM in normal and neoplastic cells, remain to be clarified. RESULTS: We perform whole genome methyl-seq on diverse normal cells and tissues and three cancer types. After excluding imprinting, the data pinpoint 15,112 high-confidence ASM differentially methylated regions, of which 1838 contain SNPs in strong linkage disequilibrium or coinciding with GWAS peaks. ASM frequencies are increased in cancers versus matched normal tissues, due to widespread allele-specific hypomethylation and focal allele-specific hypermethylation in poised chromatin. Cancer cells show increased allele switching at ASM loci, but disruptive SNPs in specific classes of CTCF and transcription factor binding motifs are similarly correlated with ASM in cancer and non-cancer. Rare somatic mutations affecting these same motif classes track with de novo ASM. Allele-specific transcription factor binding from ChIP-seq is enriched among ASM loci, but most ASM differentially methylated regions lack such annotations, and some are found in otherwise uninformative "chromatin deserts." CONCLUSIONS: ASM is increased in cancers but occurs by a shared mechanism involving disruptive SNPs in CTCF and transcription factor binding sites in both normal and neoplastic cells. Dense ASM mapping in normal plus cancer samples reveals candidate rSNPs that are difficult to find by other approaches. Together with GWAS data, these rSNPs can nominate specific transcriptional pathways in susceptibility to autoimmune, cardiometabolic, neuropsychiatric, and neoplastic diseases.

ZEB2, a master regulator of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, mediates trophoblast differentiation.

STUDY QUESTION: Does the upregulation of the zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 2 (ZEB2) transcription factor in human trophoblast cells lead to alterations in gene expression consistent with an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and a consequent increase in invasiveness? SUMMARY ANSWER: Overexpression of ZEB2 results in an epithelial-mesenchymal shift in gene expression accompanied by a substantial increase in the invasive capacity of human trophoblast cells. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: In-vivo results have shown that cytotrophoblast differentiation into extravillous trophoblast involves an epithelial-mesenchymal transition. The only EMT master regulatory factor which shows changes consistent with extravillous trophoblast EMT status and invasive capacity is the ZEB2 transcription factor. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: This study is a mechanistic investigation of the role of ZEB2 in trophoblast differentiation. We generated stable ZEB2 overexpression clones using the epithelial BeWo and JEG3 choriocarcinoma lines. Using these clones, we investigated the effects of ZEB2 overexpression on the expression of EMT-associated genes and proteins, cell morphology and invasive capability. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: We used lentiviral transduction to overexpress ZEB2 in BeWo and JEG3 cells. Stable clones were selected based on ZEB2 expression and morphology. A PCR array of EMT-associated genes was used to probe gene expression. Protein measurements were performed by western blotting. Gain-of-function was assessed by quantitatively measuring cell invasion rates using a Transwell assay, a 3D bioprinted placenta model and the xCelligenceTM platform. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: The four selected clones (2 × BeWo, 2 × JEG3, based on ZEB2 expression and morphology) all showed gene expression changes indicative of an EMT. The two clones (1 × BeWo, 1 × JEG3) showing >40-fold increase in ZEB2 expression also displayed increased ZEB2 protein; the others, with increases in ZEB2 expression <14-fold did not. The two high ZEB2-expressing clones demonstrated robust increases in invasive capacity, as assessed by three types of invasion assay. These data identify ZEB2-mediated transcription as a key mechanism transforming the epithelial-like trophoblast into cells with a mesenchymal, invasive phenotype. LARGE SCALE DATA: PCR array data have been deposited in the GEO database under accession number GSE116532. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: These are in-vitro studies using choriocarcinoma cells and so the results should be interpreted in view of these limitations. Nevertheless, the data are consistent with in-vivo findings and are replicated in two different cell lines. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: The combination of these data with the in-vivo findings clearly identify ZEB2-mediated EMT as the mechanism for cytotrophoblast differentiation into extravillous trophoblast. Having characterized these cellular mechanisms, it will now be possible to identify the intracellular and extracellular regulatory components which control ZEB2 and trophoblast differentiation. It will also be possible to identify the aberrant factors which alter differentiation in invasive pathologies such as preeclampsia and abnormally invasive placenta (AKA accreta, increta, percreta). STUDY FUNDING AND COMPETING INTEREST(s): Funding was provided by the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine and Surgery at Hackensack Meridian Health, Hackensack, NJ. The 3D bioprinted placental model work done in Drs Kim and Fisher's labs was supported by the Children's National Medical Center. The xCELLigence work done in Dr Birge's lab was supported by NIH CA165077. The authors declare no competing interests.

Human trophoblast epithelial-mesenchymal transition in abnormally invasive placenta.

Differentiation of first trimester human placental cytotrophoblast (CTB) from an anchorage-dependent epithelial phenotype into the mesenchymal-like invasive extravillous trophoblast (EVT) is crucial in the development of the maternal-fetal interface. We showed previously that differentiation of first trimester CTB to EVT involves an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Here we compare the epithelial-mesenchymal characteristics of CTB and EVT derived from normal third trimester placenta or placenta previa versus abnormally invasive placenta (AIP). CTB and EVT were isolated from normal term placenta or placenta previa following Caesarean section and EVT from AIP following Caesarean hysterectomy. Cell identity was validated by measurement of cytokeratin-7 and HLA-G. Comparing normal term CTB with EVT from normal term placenta or placenta previa for differential expression analysis of genes associated with the EMT showed changes in >70% of the genes probed. While demonstrating a mesenchymal phenotype relative to CTB, many of the gene expression changes in third trimester EVT were reduced relative to the first trimester EVT. We suggest that third trimester EVT are in a more constrained, metastable state compared to first trimester equivalents. By contrast, EVT from AIP demonstrate characteristics that are more mesenchymal than normal third trimester EVT, placing them closer to first trimester EVT on the EMT spectrum, consistent with a more invasive phenotype.

Phenotyping acute and chronic atopic dermatitis-like lesions in Stat6VT mice identifies a role for IL-33 in disease pathogenesis.

The Stat6VT mouse model of atopic dermatitis (AD) is induced by T-cell-specific expression of a constitutively active form of the protein signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6). Although AD-like lesions are known to develop in Stat6VT mice, this study was designed to determine if these mice develop acute and chronic phases of disease similar to humans. To address this, AD-like lesions from Stat6VT mice were harvested at two different timepoints relative to their onset. Lesions harvested within 1 week after development were defined as acute lesions, and those present for 1 month or more were defined as chronic lesions. Acute and chronic AD-like lesions from Stat6VT mice exhibited histologic findings and cytokine expression patterns similar to acute and chronic AD lesions in humans. Further analysis revealed increased levels of interleukin (IL)-33 transcripts in AD-like lesions compared to Stat6VT nonlesional and wild-type skin controls. Immunofluorescence also revealed increased numbers of IL-33+ keratinocytes in Stat6VT lesional skin and localized IL-33+ keratinocytes to a keratin 5+ subset. Furthermore, AD-like disease was more severe in IL-33-deficient Stat6VT mice compared to IL-33-sufficient Stat6VT mice. These studies suggest that Stat6VT mice can serve as a model of acute and chronic AD and that IL-33 may attenuate inflammation in this system.

IFPA meeting 2016 workshop report III: Decidua-trophoblast interactions; trophoblast implantation and invasion; immunology at the maternal-fetal interface; placental inflammation.

Workshops are an important part of the IFPA annual meeting as they allow for discussion of specialised topics. At IFPA meeting 2016 there were twelve themed workshops, four of which are summarized in this report. These workshops related to various aspects of placental biology but collectively covered areas of decidual-trophoblast interaction, regulation of trophoblast invasion, immune cells at the maternal-fetal interface, and placental inflammation.

Differentiation of first trimester cytotrophoblast to extravillous trophoblast involves an epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

The transformation of cytotrophoblast (CTB) to extravillous trophoblast (EVT) is an essential process for placental implantation. EVT generated at the tips of the anchoring villi migrate away from the placenta and invade the endometrium and maternal spiral arteries, where they modulate maternal immune responses and remodel the arteries into high-volume conduits to facilitate uteroplacental blood flow. The process of EVT differentiation has several factors in common with the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) observed in embryonic development, wound healing and cancer metastasis. We hypothesized that the generation of invasive EVT from CTB was a form of EMT. We isolated paired CTB and EVT from first trimester placentae, and compared their gene expression using a PCR array comprising probes for genes involved in EMT. Out of 84 genes, 24 were down-regulated in EVT compared to CTB, including epithelial markers such as E-cadherin (-11-fold) and occludin (-75-fold). Another 30 genes were up-regulated in EVT compared to CTB including mesenchymal markers such as vimentin (235-fold) and fibronectin (107-fold) as well as the matrix metalloproteinases, MMP2 and MMP9 (357-fold, 129-fold). These alterations also included major increases in the ZEB2 (zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 2, 198-fold) and TCF4 (transcription factor 4, 18-fold) transcription factors, suggesting possible stimulatory mechanisms. There was substantial up-regulation of the genes encoding TGFß1 and TGFß2 (48-fold, 115-fold), which may contribute to the maintenance of the mesenchymal-like phenotype. We conclude that transformation of CTB to EVT is consistent with an EMT, although the differences with other types of EMT suggest this may be a unique form.

Topical application of a platelet activating factor receptor agonist suppresses phorbol ester-induced acute and chronic inflammation and has cancer chemopreventive activity in mouse skin.

Platelet activating factor (PAF) has long been associated with acute edema and inflammatory responses. PAF acts by binding to a specific G-protein coupled receptor (PAF-R, Ptafr). However, the role of chronic PAF-R activation on sustained inflammatory responses has been largely ignored. We recently demonstrated that mice lacking the PAF-R (Ptafr-/- mice) exhibit increased cutaneous tumorigenesis in response to a two-stage chemical carcinogenesis protocol. Ptafr-/- mice also exhibited increased chronic inflammation in response to phorbol ester application. In this present study, we demonstrate that topical application of the non-hydrolysable PAF mimetic (carbamoyl-PAF (CPAF)), exerts a potent, dose-dependent, and short-lived edema response in WT mice, but not Ptafr -/- mice or mice deficient in c-Kit (c-KitW-sh/W-sh mice). Using an ear inflammation model, co-administration of topical CPAF treatment resulted in a paradoxical decrease in both acute ear thickness changes associated with a single PMA application, as well as the sustained inflammation associated with chronic repetitive PMA applications. Moreover, mice treated topically with CPAF also exhibited a significant reduction in chemical carcinogenesis. The ability of CPAF to suppress acute and chronic inflammatory changes in response to PMA application(s) was PAF-R dependent, as CPAF had no effect on basal or PMA-induced inflammation in Ptafr-/- mice. Moreover, c-Kit appears to be necessary for the anti-inflammatory effects of CPAF, as CPAF had no observable effect in c-KitW-sh/W-sh mice. These data provide additional evidence that PAF-R activation exerts complex immunomodulatory effects in a model of chronic inflammation that is relevant to neoplastic development.

STAT6-mediated keratitis and blepharitis: a novel murine model of ocular atopic dermatitis.

PURPOSE: Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common inflammatory disease that can affect the eye, resulting in ocular pathologies, including blepharitis, keratitis, and uveitis; however, the pathogenic mechanisms underlying the ocular manifestations of AD are not well understood. METHODS: In the present study, we characterized the ocular pathologies that develop in the Stat6VT mouse model of AD. We examined the cytokine profile of the eyelid lesions, measured the behavioral response, and documented the treatment response to topical steroids. RESULTS: Our results show that Stat6VT mice spontaneously developed blepharitis, keratitis, and uveitis similar to that observed in patients with AD. Histologic findings of allergic inflammation in affected eyelids in this model include the presence of a lymphocyte-predominant infiltrate and tissue eosinophilia in the dermis. Gene expression analysis of affected eyelid tissue by quantitative PCR revealed increased amounts of mRNAs for the Th2 cytokines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. In addition, increased eyelid scratching was seen in Stat6VT mice with blepharitis. Topical treatment with the corticosteroid clobetasol reduced eyelid inflammation, tissue eosinophilia, and Th2 cytokine expression. CONCLUSIONS: The development of AD-like ocular pathologies in this model supports the idea that in humans, AD-associated disease of the eye may be driven by Th2-mediated inflammation and demonstrates that the Stat6VT mouse may be a useful system in which to further investigate pathogenesis of and treatment strategies for blepharitis and other ocular diseases that develop in association with AD.

Topical application of a vitamin D analogue exacerbates atopic dermatitis and induces the atopic dermatitis-like phenotype in Stat6VT mice.

Calcipotriene is a topical vitamin D3 analogue approved for the treatment of plaque and scalp psoriasis. We report the case of a 2-year-old boy whose atopic dermatitis (AD) flared in response to application of calcipotriene 0.005% cream and solution for a mistaken diagnosis of plaque and scalp psoriasis. We investigated whether the patient's eruption was secondary to an allergic contact dermatitis. In the Stat6VT mouse model of AD we tested whether calcipotriene could induce the otherwise-spontaneous AD-like phenotype. Closed patch testing was done on the patient with calcipotriene solution and cream, moisturizing cream, and 51% isopropanol. Stat6VT and wild-type (WT) mice were treated for 7 days with calcipotriene solution or vehicle (isopropanol) applied to the right and left upper back skin, respectively, after which mice were followed longitudinally for 10 weeks. Biopsy specimens from prior treatment sites were then collected for histology and RNA isolation. RNA was analyzed for interleukin (IL-4) expression using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Patch testing was negative. Stat6VT mice, in contrast to WT mice, developed a persistent eczematous dermatitis at sites of calcipotriene application. Clinical and histologic features and high IL-4 transcript levels were consistent with the spontaneous AD-like phenotype seen in Stat6VT mice. At sites of active disease, calcipotriene can worsen a flare of AD. In Stat6VT mice, calcipotriene can induce the AD-like phenotype.

Spatiotemporal assessments of dermal hyperemia enable accurate prediction of experimental cutaneous carcinogenesis as well as chemopreventive activity.

Field cancerization refers to areas of grossly normal epithelium that exhibit increased risk for tumor occurrence. Unfortunately, elucidation of the locoregional changes that contribute to increased tumor risk is difficult due to the inability to visualize the field. In this study, we use a noninvasive optical-based imaging approach to detail spatiotemporal changes in subclinical hyperemia that occur during experimental cutaneous carcinogenesis. After acute inflammation from 10 weeks of UVB irradiation subsides, small areas of focal hyperemia form and were seen to persist and expand long after cessation of UVB irradiation. We show that these persistent early hyperemic foci reliably predict sites of angiogenesis and overlying tumor formation. More than 96% of the tumors (57 of 59) that developed following UVB or 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene/phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (DMBA/PMA) treatment developed in sites of preexisting hyperemic foci. Hyperemic foci were multifocal and heterogeneously distributed and represented a minor fraction of the carcinogen-treated skin surface (10.3% of the imaging area in vehicle-treated animals). Finally, we also assessed the ability of the anti-inflammatory agent, celecoxib, to suppress hyperemia formation during photocarcinogenesis. The chemopreventive activity of celecoxib was shown to correlate with its ability to reduce the area of skin that exhibit these hyperemic foci, reducing the area of imaged skin containing hyperemic foci by 49.1%. Thus, we propose that a hyperemic switch can be exploited to visualize the cancerization field very early in the course of cutaneous carcinogenesis and provides insight into the chemopreventive activity of the anti-inflammatory agent celecoxib.