Saccharomyces Boulardii alleviates neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in PTZ-kindled seizure rat model.

Previous research have reported that modulating the gut microbiome composition by fecal microbiota transplantation and probiotic administration can alleviate seizure occurrence and severity. Saccharomyces boulardii (SB) is a yeast probiotic that has demonstrated ameliorating effects on anxiety, memory and cognitive deficit, and brain amyloidogenesis. In this research, our goal was to examine the anti-seizure effects of SB on the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-kindled male Wistar rats. The animals were randomly categorized into four test groups. The rats were orally administered with saline (control and PTZ groups) or S. boulardii (SB + PTZ and SB groups) for 57 days. From the 29th day of the experiment, the animals received intraperitoneally saline (control and SB groups) or PTZ (PTZ and SB + PTZ groups) on alternate days for 30 days. The administration dose of SB and PTZ was 1010 CFU/ml/day and 35 mg/kg, respectively. We assessed animal seizure behavior, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and the levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus tissue. S. boulardii hindered the PTZ-induced kindling development. SB treatment elevated glutathione (GSH) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. SB also lessened the hippocampal levels of BDNF and MMP-9. Following SB supplementation, proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß) and IL-6 were lowered, and anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was enhanced. Overall, our data indicated, for the first time, the positive impact of SB on the PTZ-kindled seizure rat model. The anti-seizure activity of SB was mediated by modulating oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and MMP-9 and BDNF levels.

The role of interferon beta in neurological diseases and its potential therapeutic relevance.

Interferon beta (IFNß) is a member of the type-1 interferon family and has various immunomodulatory functions in neuropathological conditions. Although the level of IFNß is low under healthy conditions, it is increased during inflammatory processes to protect the central nervous system (CNS). In particular, microglia and astrocytes are the main sources of IFNß upon inflammatory insult in the CNS. The protective effects of IFNß are well characterized in reducing the progression of multiple sclerosis (MS); however, little is understood about its effects in other neurological/neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, different types of IFNs and their signaling pathways will be described. Then we will focus on the potential role and therapeutic effect of IFNß in several CNS-related diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, stroke, spinal cord injury, prion disease and spinocerebellar ataxia 7.

Yttrium oxide nanoparticles alleviate cognitive deficits, neuroinflammation, and mitochondrial biogenesis impairment induced by streptozotocin.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive cognitive decline. Yttrium oxide nanoparticles (Y2O3NPs) have recently attracted much attention for their potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, the effects of Y2O3NPs in animal models of AD are less studied. This study aimed to investigate the potential therapeutic effects of Y2O3NPs in streptozotocin (STZ)-treated rats, a reliable animal model of AD, with special emphasis on cognitive function, neuroinflammation, and mitochondrial biogenesis in the hippocampus. Male Wistar rats were stereotaxically injected with STZ (3 mg/kg, 3 µl/ventricle). Three weeks after STZ injection, cognitive function was assessed using the Morris water maze, elevated plus maze, and passive avoidance tasks. Intraperitoneal treatment with Y2O3NPs (0.1, 0.3, or 0.5 mg/kg) was started 24 h after the STZ injection and continued for 21 days. The mRNA and protein levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1ß) and components involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (PGC-1α, NRF-1, and TFAM) were measured in the hippocampus. The results indicated that STZ induced cognitive impairment and led to neuroinflammation and mitochondrial biogenesis impairment in the hippocampus of rats. Interestingly, treatment with Y2O3NPs effectively reduced STZ-induced cognitive deficits in a dose-dependent manner, possibly by attenuating neuroinflammation and mitochondrial biogenesis impairment. These findings suggest that Y2O3NPs can be considered as a promising therapeutic agent for treating or ameliorating the neuropathological effects associated with AD.

Comprehensive analysis of lncRNA-associated ceRNA network reveals novel potential prognostic regulatory axes in glioblastoma multiforme.

Deciphering the lncRNA-associated competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network is essential in decoding glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) pathogenesis by regulating miRNA availability and controlling mRNA stability. This study aimed to explore novel biomarkers for GBM by constructing a lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA network. A ceRNA network in GBM was constructed using lncRNA, mRNA and miRNA expression profiles from the TCGA and GEO datasets. Seed nodes were identified by protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis of deregulated-mRNAs (DEmRNAs) in the ceRNA network. A lncRNA-miRNA-seed network was constructed by mapping the seed nodes into the preliminary ceRNA network. The impact of the seed nodes on the overall survival (OS) of patients was assessed by the GSCA database. Functional enrichment analysis of the deregulated-lncRNAs (DElncRNA) in the ceRNA network and genes interacting with OS-related genes in the PPI network were performed. Finally, the positive correlation between seed nodes and their associated lncRNAs and the expression level of these molecules in GBM tissue compared with normal samples was validated using the GEPIA database. Our analyzes revealed that three novel regulatory axes AL161785.1/miR-139-5p/MS4A6A, LINC02611/miR-139-5p/MS4A6A and PCED1B-AS1/miR-433-3p/MS4A6A may play essential roles in GBM pathogenesis. MS4A6A is upregulated in GBM and closely associated with shorter survival time of patients. We also identified that MS4A6A expression positively correlates with genes related to tumour-associated macrophages, which induce macrophage infiltration and immune suppression. The functional enrichment analysis demonstrated that DElncRNAs are mainly involved in neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, calcium/MAPK signalling pathway, ribosome, GABAergic/Serotonergic/Glutamatergic synapse and immune system process. In addition, genes related to MS4A6A contribute to immune and inflammatory-related biological processes. Our findings provide novel insights to understand the ceRNA regulation in GBM and identify novel prognostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets.

Sex-dependent susceptibility to brain metabolic dysfunction and memory impairment in response to pre and postnatal high-fat diet.

The developing brain is sensitive to the impacts of early-life nutritional intake. This study investigates whether maternal high fat diet (HFD) causes glucose metabolism impairment, neuroinflammation, and memory impairment in immature and adult offspring, and whether it may be affected by postweaning diets in a sex-dependent manner in adult offspring. After weaning, female rats were fed HFD (55.9% fat) or normal chow diet (NCD; 10% fat) for 8 weeks before mating, during pregnancy, and lactation. On postnatal day 21 (PND21), the male and female offspring of both groups were split into two new groups, and NCD or HFD feeding was maintained until PND180. On PND21 and PND180, brain glucose metabolism, inflammation, and Alzheimer's pathology-related markers were by qPCR. In adult offspring, peripheral insulin resistance parameters, spatial memory performance, and brain glucose metabolism (18F-FDG-PET scan and protein levels of IDE and GLUT3) were assessed. Histological analysis was also performed on PND21 and adult offspring. On PND21, we found that maternal HFD affected transcript levels of glucose metabolism markers in both sexes. In adult offspring, more profoundly in males, postweaning HFD in combination with maternal HFD induced peripheral and brain metabolic disturbances, impaired memory performance and elevated inflammation, dementia risk markers, and neuronal loss. Our results suggest that maternal HFD affects brain glucose metabolism in the early ages of both sexes. Postweaning HFD sex-dependently causes brain metabolic dysfunction and memory impairment in later-life offspring; effects that can be worsened in combination with maternal HFD.

Impairment of entorhinal cortex network activity in Alzheimer's disease.

The entorhinal cortex (EC) stands out as a critical brain region affected in the early phases of Alzheimer's disease (AD), with some of the disease's pathological processes originating from this area, making it one of the most crucial brain regions in AD. Recent research highlights disruptions in the brain's network activity, characterized by heightened excitability and irregular oscillations, may contribute to cognitive impairment. These disruptions are proposed not only as potential therapeutic targets but also as early biomarkers for AD. In this paper, we will begin with a review of the anatomy and function of EC, highlighting its selective vulnerability in AD. Subsequently, we will discuss the disruption of EC network activity, exploring changes in excitability and neuronal oscillations in this region during AD and hypothesize that, considering the advancements in neuromodulation techniques, addressing the disturbances in the network activity of the EC could offer fresh insights for both the diagnosis and treatment of AD.

The preventive effects of Saccharomyces boulardii against oxidative stress induced by lipopolysaccharide in rat brain.

The brain is sensitive to oxidative stress, which can trigger microglial activation and neuroinflammation. Antioxidant therapies may provide neuroprotection against oxidative stress. In recent years antioxidant effects of probiotics and their possible mechanisms in oxidative stress-related models have been determined. In the current study, for the first time, we assessed the effects of Saccharomyces boulardii on oxidative stress provoked by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the rat brain. Four groups of animals were used, including the control, LPS, S. boulardii + LPS, and S. boulardii groups. All animals received either saline or S. boulardii (1010 CFU) by gavage for four weeks. Between days 14 and 22, all animals received either LPS (250 µg/kg) or saline by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection. S. boulardii was able to inhibit lipid peroxidation and prevent the reduction of antioxidant levels, including glutathione and catalase in the model of oxidative stress induced by LPS in the rat hippocampus and cortex. Also, it increased the lowered ratio of glutathione/oxidized glutathione in both tissues. Serum levels of anti-inflammatory interleukin 10 (IL-10) and proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-8 increased and decreased, respectively. S. boulardii has potential antioxidant activities in oxidative stress-related model, possibly modulating gut microbiota, immune defense, and antioxidant enzyme activities that can be considered in preventing oxidative stress-related central nervous system (CNS) diseases.

mTOR signaling and Alzheimer's disease: What we know and where we are?

Despite the great body of research done on Alzheimer's disease, the underlying mechanisms have not been vividly investigated. To date, the accumulation of amyloid-beta plaques and tau tangles constitutes the hallmark of the disease; however, dysregulation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) seems to be significantly involved in the pathogenesis of the disease as well. mTOR, as a serine-threonine protein kinase, was previously known for controlling many cellular functions such as cell size, autophagy, and metabolism. In this regard, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) may leave anti-aging impacts by robustly inhibiting autophagy, a mechanism that inhibits the accumulation of damaged protein aggregate and dysfunctional organelles. Formation and aggregation of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid-beta plaques seem to be significantly regulated by mTOR signaling. Understanding the underlying mechanisms and connection between mTOR signaling and AD may suggest conducting clinical trials assessing the efficacy of rapamycin, as an mTOR inhibitor drug, in managing AD or may help develop other medications. In this literature review, we aim to elaborate mTOR signaling network mainly in the brain, point to gaps of knowledge, and define how and in which ways mTOR signaling can be connected with AD pathogenesis and symptoms.

Effect of Metformin on Epidermal Neural Crest Stem Cells and Their Potential Application in Ameliorating Paclitaxel-induced Neurotoxicity Phenotype.

AIMS: Epidermal Neural Crest Stem Cells (EPI-NCSCs) have emerged as prospective ideal candidates to meet the fundamental requirements of cell-based therapies in neurodegenerative disorders. The present study aimed to identify the potential of metformin in driving EPI-NCSCs to neuronal/glial differentiation and express neurotrophic factors as well as assess their therapeutic potential for mitigating the main behavioral manifestations of chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity (CIN). MAIN METHODS: EPI-NCSCs were extracted from the bulge region of hair follicle. Following expansion, transcript and protein expression profiles of key markers for stemness (Nestin, EGR-1, SOX-2 and 10), neurotrophic activity (BDNF, GDNF, NGF, FGF-2, and IL-6), and neuronal (TUB3, DCX, NRF and NeuN) and glial (PDGFRα, NG2, GFAP, and MBP) differentiation were determined on days 1 and 7 post-treatment with 10 and 100 µM metformin using real time-PCR and immunocytochemistry methods. Then, the in vivo function of metformin-treated stem cells was evaluated in the context of paclitaxel CIN. To do so, thermal hyperalgesia, mechanical allodynia, and spatial learning and memory tests were evaluated by Hotplate, Von Frey, and Morris water maze tests. KEY FINDINGS: Our result indicated that exposure of EPI-NCSCs to metformin was associated with progressive decline in stemness markers and enhanced expression levels of several neurotrophic, neuron and oligodendrocyte-specific markers. Further, it was observed that intranasal metformin-treated EPI-NCSCs improved the cognitive impairment, and mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity induced by paclitaxel in rats. SIGNIFICANCE: Collectively, we reasoned that metformin pretreatment of EPI-NCSCs might further enhance their therapeutic benefits against CIN.

Investigating the Serotonergic Modulation of Orientation Tuning of Neurons in Primary Visual Cortex of Anesthetized Mice.

Introduction: Sensory processing is profoundly regulated by brain neuromodulatory systems. One of the main neuromodulators is serotonin which influences higher cognitive functions, such as different aspects of perceptual processing. Accordingly, malfunction in the serotonergic system may lead to visual illusion in psychiatric disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. This study aims to investigate the serotonergic modulation of visual responses of neurons to stimulus orientation in the primary visual cortex. Methods: Eight-week-old naive mice were anesthetized and a craniotomy was done on the region of interest in the primary visual cortex. Spontaneous and visual-evoked activities of neurons were recorded before and during the electrical stimulation of the dorsal raphe nucleus using in vivo whole-cell patch-clamp recording. The square-wave grating of 12 orientations was presented. The data were analyzed and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare the data of two conditions that belong to the same neurons, with or without electrical stimulation. Results: The serotonergic system changed the orientation tuning of nearly 60% of recorded neurons by decreasing the mean firing rate in two independent visual response components, namely gain and baseline response. It also increased the mean firing rate in a small number of neurons (about 20%). Additionally, it left the preferred orientation and sensitivity of neurons unchanged. Conclusion: Serotonergic modulation showed a bidirectional effect. It causes predominately divisive and subtractive decreases in the visual responses of the neurons in the primary visual cortex that can modify the balance between internal and external sensory signals and result in disorders. Highlights: The serotonergic system predominantly decreased the mean firing rate of neurons in the primary visual cortex.The serotonergic system decreased responses of visual cortical neurons by subtractive and divisive changes of orientation tuning.The serotonergic system leaves the spontaneous activity of visual cortical neurons unchanged. Plain Language Summary: Serotonin is one of the well-known neuromodulators involved in many physiological functions of the brain, such as sensory processing. It can play an essential role in producing perceptual psychotic episodes following the use of psychedelic drugs. Neural mechanisms of changes in cortical processing by the serotonergic system are not elucidated enough. In this study, we showed the electrical stimulation of the dorsal raphe nucleus as the main resource for projecting serotonergic neurons to the visual cortex, causing to decrease in visual-evoked responses of neurons in the primary visual cortex without changing the spontaneous activity. This effect may lead to an imbalance between the brain's intrinsic and stimulus-evoked activity and result in various kinds of psychiatric disorders, such as visual hallucinogenic experiences in schizophrenia and autism. Accordingly, it is crucial to understand the mechanisms by which serotonin affects the rapid and long-term activity of neocortical circuits. Such studies can be helpful in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders related to the neuromodulatory roles of the serotonergic system by providing new methods for rebalancing these intricate components.

The Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) Test, Supplementary to Behavioral Tests for Evaluation of the Salicylate-Induced Tinnitus.

Tinnitus is a symptom of various disorders that affects the quality of life of millions people. Given the significance of the access to an objective and non-invasive method for tinnitus detection, in this study the auditory brainstem response (ABR) electrophysiological test was used to diagnose salicylate-induced tinnitus, in parallel with common behavioral tests. Wistar rats were divided into saline (n = 7), and salicylate (n = 7) groups for behavioral tests, and salicylate group (n = 5) for the ABR test. The rats were evaluated by pre-pulse inhibition (PPI), gap pre-pulse inhibition of the acoustic startle (GPIAS), and ABR tests, at baseline, 14 and 62 h after salicylate (350 mg/kg) or vehicle injection. The mean percentage of GPIAS test was significantly reduced following salicylate administration, which confirms the induction of tinnitus. The ABR test results showed an increase in the hearing threshold at click and 8, 12, and 16 kHz tones. Moreover, a decline was observed in the latency ratio of II-I waves in all tone burst frequencies with the highest variation in 12 and 16 kHz as well as a decrement in the latency ratio of III-I and IV-I only in 12 and 16 kHz. ABR test is able to evaluate the salicylate induced tinnitus pitch and confirm the results of behavioral tinnitus tests. GPIAS reflexive response is dependent on brainstem circuits and the auditory cortex while, ABR test can demonstrate the function of the auditory brainstem in more details, and therefore, a combination of these two tests can offer a more accurate tinnitus evaluation.

Sex-specific effects of high-fat diet on rat brain glucose metabolism and early-onset dementia symptoms.

Peripheral metabolic disturbances are associated with a variety of clinical health consequences and may contribute to the development of neurocognitive disorders. This study investigates whether long-term high-fat diet (HFD) consumption changes the brain glucose metabolism and impairs memory performance in a sex-dependent manner. Male and female rats, after weaning, were fed HFD or normal chow diet (NCD) for 16 weeks. Behavioral tests for spatial memory and an 18 F-FDG-PET scan were performed. Also, the expression of brain insulin resistance markers and Alzheimer's pathology-related genes was assessed by qPCR. The Morris water maze and Y-maze results showed, respectively, that memory retrieval and spatial working memory were impaired only in HFD male rats compared to NCD controls. In addition, measuring whole brain 18 F-FDG uptake indicated a significant reduction in glucose metabolism in male but not female HFD rats. Analysis of 15 genes related to glucose metabolism and Alzheimer's pathology, in the hippocampus, showed that expression of GLUT3, IRS2, and IDE is significantly reduced in HFD male rats. Our results suggest that sex affects the HFD-induced dysregulation of brain glucose metabolism and cognitive performance.

The beneficial effects of chick embryo extract preconditioning on hair follicle stem cells: A promising strategy to generate Schwann cells.

The beneficial effects of hair follicle stem cells in different animal models of nervous system conditions have been extensively studied. While chick embryo extract (CEE) has been used as a growth medium supplement for these stem cells, this is the first study to show the effect of CEE on them. The rat hair follicle stem cells were isolated and supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum plus 10% CEE. The migration rate, proliferative capacity and multipotency were evaluated along with morphometric alteration and differentiation direction. The proteome analysis of CEE content identified effective factors of CEE that probably regulate fate and function of stem cells. The CEE enhances the migration rate of stem cells from explanted bulges as well as their proliferation, likely due to activation of AP-1 and translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) by thioredoxin found in CEE. The increased length of outgrowth may be the result of cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation triggered by active CamKII contained in CEE. Further, CEE supplementation upregulates the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. The elevated expression of target genes and proteins may be due to CREB, AP-1 and c-Myc activation in these stem cells. Given the increased transcript levels of neurotrophins, VEGF, and the expression of PDGFR-α, S100B, MBP and SOX-10 protein, it is possible that CEE promotes the fate of these stem cells towards Schwann cells.

Neuroprotective effect of thyroid hormones on methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity via cell surface receptors.

Thyroid hormones (THs) have an essential role in normal brain development and function. Methamphetamine (MA) is a widely abused psychostimulant that induces irreversible damages to neuronal cells. In the current study, we used rat primary hippocampal neurons (PHNs) to investigate the neuroprotective effect of THs against MA neurotoxicity. PHNs were prepared from 18-day rat embryos and cell viability was assessed using MTT assay, following treatment with various concentrations of MA, T3, T4 or tetrac, an integrin αvß3 cell surface receptor antagonist. Our results showed that 7 mM MA induced an approximately 50 % reduction in the PHNs viability. Treatment with 800 nM T3 or 8 µM T4 protected PHNs against MA toxicity, an effect which was blocked in the presence of tetrac. These findings suggest that THs protect PHNs against MA-induced cell death by the activation of integrin αvß3 cell surface receptors. So, targeting integrin αvß3 receptors or using THs can be considered as promising therapeutic strategies to overcome MA neurotoxicity.

Intranasal interferon-beta alleviates anxiety and depressive-like behaviors by modulating microglia polarization in an Alzheimer's disease model.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients frequently experience neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS), which are linked to a lower quality of life and a faster rate of disease progression. A growing body of research indicates that several microglial phenotypes control the inflammatory response and are crucial in the pathophysiology of AD-related NPS. Given the crucial role played by inflammatory mediators produced by microglia in developing of NPS, interferon-beta (IFNß), a cytokine with anti-inflammatory capabilities, maybe a successful treatment for NPS caused by AD. In this investigation, using a rat model of AD, we examined the impact of intranasal treatment of IFNß on anxious/depressive-like behavior and microglial M1/M2 polarization. The rat hippocampus was bilaterally injected with lentiviruses harboring mutant human amyloid precursor protein. Rats were given recombinant IFNß1a (68,000 IU/rat) via the intranasal route, starting on day 23 following viral infection and continuing until day 49. On days 47-49, the elevated plus maze, forced swim, and tail suspension tests were applied to measure anxiety- and depressive-like behavior. Additionally, qPCR was utilized to quantify the expression of M1 markers (CD68, CD86, and CD40) and M2 markers (Ym1, CD206, Arg1, GDNF, BDNF, and SOCS1). Our findings demonstrated that decreased M2 marker expression is accompanied by anxious/depressive-like behavior when the mutant human APP gene is overexpressed in the hippocampus. In the rat model of AD, IFNß therapy reduces anxious/depressive-like behaviors, at least in part by polarizing microglia towards M2. Therefore, IFNß may be a viable therapeutic drug for reducing NPS in the context of AD.

Hepatic Acyl CoA Oxidase1 Inhibition Modifies Brain Lipids and Electrical Properties of Dentate Gyrus.

Introduction: Peroxisomes are essential organelles in lipid metabolism. They contain enzymes for ß-oxidation of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFA) that cannot be broken down in mitochondria. Reduced expression in hepatic acyl-CoA oxidase 1 (ACOX1), a peroxisome ß-oxidation enzyme, followed by modification of the brain fatty acid profile has been observed in aged rodents. These studies have suggested a potential role for peroxisome ß-oxidation in brain aging. This study was designed to examine the effect of hepatic ACOX1 inhibition on brain fatty acid composition and neuronal cell activities of young rats (200-250 g). Methods: A specific ACOX1 inhibitor, 10, 12- tricosadiynoic acid (TDYA), 100 µg/kg (in olive oil) was administered by daily gavage for 25 days in male Wistar rats. The brain fatty acid composition and electrophysiological properties of dentate gyrus granule cells were determined using gas chromatography and whole-cell patch-clamp, respectively. Results: A significant increase in C20, C22, C18:1, C20:1, and a decrease of C18, C24, C20:3n6, and C22:6n3 were found in 10, 12- tricosadiynoic acid (TDYA) treated rats compared to the control group. The results showed that ACOX1 inhibition changes fatty acid composition similar to old rats. ACOX1 inhibition caused hyperpolarization of resting membrane potential, and also reduction of input resistance, action potential duration, and spike firing. Moreover, ACOX1 inhibition increased rheobase current and afterhyperpolarization amplitude in granule cells. Conclusion: The results indicated that systemic inhibition of ACOX1 causes hypo-excitability of neuronal cells. These results provide new evidence on the involvement of peroxisome function and hepatic ACOX1 activity in brain fatty acid profile and the electrophysiological properties of dentate gyrus cells.

Preventive Effect of Saccharomyces boulardii on Memory Impairment Induced by Lipopolysaccharide in Rats.

Recent studies have indicated that dysfunction of gut microbiota, living microorganisms of the digestive tract, plays a role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, indicating the valuable impact of probiotics as a potential preventive or therapeutic strategy. Saccharomyces boulardii is a yeast probiotic with beneficial effects on various disorders, ranging from inflammatory gastrointestinal diseases to brain and behavioral disorders. Herein, we examined the effect of S. boulardii on memory impairment induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in Wistar rats. Four groups of rats were used in this study (N = 10): (1) control [Cnt], (2) LPS, (3) LPS + S. boulardii [LPS + S], and (4) S. boulardii [S]. Animals were orally administered S. boulardii (250 mg/rat) or saline by gavage for 4 weeks. From the 14th day of the study, animals were administered intraperitoneal LPS (0.25 mg/kg/day) or saline for 9 days. We assessed memory impairment, neuroinflammation, and amyloid-ß deposition. S. boulardii ameliorated LPS-induced memory dysfunction. We observed that S. boulardii significantly reduced the elevated levels of serum interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α, as well as hippocampal levels of NLRP3 and caspase-1 in the LPS model. Moreover, S. boulardii alleviated amyloid-ß deposition in the rat hippocampus. Collectively, our findings indicated that S. boulardii could inhibit memory impairment, neuroinflammation, and amyloid-ß accumulation induced by LPS, possibly by modifying the gut microbiota.

Estrogen as a key regulator of energy homeostasis and metabolic health.

Over the last two decades, it has become evident that estrogens preserve the integrity of energy homeostasis at central and peripheral levels. Estrogen deficiency, such as that caused by menopause or ovariectomy, has been linked to obesity and metabolic disorders that can be resolved or reversed by estrogen therapy. 17ß-estradiol (E2), as the major estrogen in the body, primarily regulates energy balance via estrogen receptor alpha (ERα). At the central level, E2 plays its catabolic role predominantly by interacting with hypothalamic arcuate neurons and sending signals via ventromedial hypothalamic neurons to control brown adipose tissue-mediated thermogenesis. In peripheral tissues, several organs, particularly the liver, brown and white adipose tissues, and pancreatic ß cells, have attracted considerable attention. In this review, we focused on the current state of knowledge of "central and peripheral" estrogen signaling in regulating energy balance via "nuclear and extranuclear pathways" in both "females and males". In this context, according to an exploratory approach, we tried to determine the principal estrogen receptor subtype/isoform in each section, the importance of extranuclear-initiated estrogen signaling on metabolic functions, and how sex differences related to ER signaling affect the prevalence of some of the metabolic disorders. Moreover, we discussed the data from a third viewpoint, understanding the clinical significance of estrogen signaling in abnormal metabolic conditions such as obesity or being on a high-fat diet. Collectively, this review exposes novel and important research gaps in our current understanding of dysmetabolic diseases and can facilitate finding more effective treatment options for these disorders.

Astaxanthin ameliorates serum level and spinal expression of macrophage migration inhibitory factor following spinal cord injury.

Astaxanthin (AST) is a lipid-soluble carotenoid with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Previous reports demonstrated the promising effects of AST on spinal cord injury (SCI)-induced inflammation and sensory-motor dysfunction. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), as a cytokine, plays a critical role in the inflammatory phase of SCI. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of AST on post-SCI levels of MIF in serum and spinal cord. The possible correlation between MIF and mechanical pain threshold was also assessed. Adult male rats were subjected to a severe compression spinal injury and 30 min later were treated with AST (Intrathecal, 2 nmol) or vehicle. Neuropathic pain was assessed by von Frey filaments before the surgery, and then on days 7, 14, 21, and 28 post-SCI. Western blot and ELISA were used to measure the serum level and spinal expression of MIF following SCI in the same time points. AST treatment significantly attenuated the SCI-induced dysregulations in the serum levels and tissue expression of MIF. A negative correlation was observed between mechanical pain threshold and serum MIF level (r = -0.5463, P < 0.001), as well as mechanical pain threshold and spinal level of MIF (r = -0.9562; P < 0.001). AST ameliorates SCI-induced sensory dysfunction, probably through inhibiting MIF-regulated inflammatory pathways.

Behavioral and Molecular Effects of Thapsigargin-Induced Brain ER- Stress: Encompassing Inflammation, MAPK, and Insulin Signaling Pathway.

Accumulation of misfolded proteins, known as endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, is known to participate in Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is also correlated with impaired central insulin signaling. However, few studies have probed the relationship between memory, central ER stress, inflammation, hippocampal mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity and insulin resistance. The present study aimed to investigate the causative role and underlying mechanisms of brain ER stress in memory impairment and develop a reliable animal model for ER-mediated memory loss. Thapsigargin (TG), a known ER stress activator, was centrally administered. The cognitive function of animals was evaluated by the Morris Water Maze (MWM). To verify the induction of central ER stress, we investigated the mRNA expression of UPR markers in the hippocampus. In addition, the activation of ER stress markers, including Bip, CHOP, and some related apoptosis and pro-inflammatory proteins, such as caspase-3, Bax, Bcl-2, TNF-α, MAPK, and insulin signaling markers, were assessed by Western-blots. The results demonstrated that TG impairs spatial cognition and hippocampal insulin signaling. Meanwhile, molecular results showed a concurrent increment of hippocampal UPR markers, apoptosis, P38 activity, and TNF-α. This study introduced TG-induced ER stress as a pharmacological model for memory impairment in rats and revealed some underlying mechanisms.