Germline proliferation trades off with lipid metabolism in Drosophila.

Little is known about the metabolic basis of life-history trade-offs but lipid stores seem to play a pivotal role. During reproduction, an energetically highly costly process, animals mobilize fat reserves. Conversely, reduced or curtailed reproduction promotes lipid storage in many animals. Systemic signals from the gonad seem to be involved: Caenorhabditis elegans lacking germline stem cells display endocrine changes, have increased fat stores and are long-lived. Similarly, germline-ablated Drosophila melanogaster exhibit major somatic physiological changes, but whether and how germline loss affects lipid metabolism remains largely unclear. Here we show that germline-ablated flies have profoundly altered energy metabolism at the transcriptional level and store excess fat as compared to fertile flies. Germline activity thus constrains or represses fat accumulation, and this effect is conserved between flies and worms. More broadly, our findings confirm that lipids represent a major energetic currency in which costs of reproduction are paid.

Evolution of sexually-transferred steroids and mating-induced phenotypes in Anopheles mosquitoes.

Human malaria, which remains a major public health problem, is transmitted by a subset of Anopheles mosquitoes belonging to only three out of eight subgenera: Anopheles, Cellia and Nyssorhynchus. Unlike almost every other insect species, males of some Anopheles species produce steroid hormones which are transferred to females during copulation to influence their reproduction. Steroids are consequently a potential target for malaria vector control. Here, we analysed the evolution of sexually-transferred steroids and their effects on female reproductive traits across Anopheles by using a set of 16 mosquito species (five Anopheles, eight Cellia, and three Nyssorhynchus), including malaria vector and non-vector species. We show that male steroid production and transfer are specific to the Cellia and therefore represent a synapomorphy of this subgenus. Furthermore, we show that mating-induced effects in females are variable across species and differences are not correlated with sexually-transferred steroids or with Anopheles ability to transmit human malaria. Overall, our findings highlight that Anopheles mosquitoes have evolved different reproductive strategies, independently of being a malaria vector or not.

Microarray and RNAi analysis of P450s in Anopheles gambiae male and female steroidogenic tissues: CYP307A1 is required for ecdysteroid synthesis.

In insects, the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) coordinates major developmental transitions. While the first and the final steps of 20E biosynthesis are characterized, the pathway from 7-dehydrocholesterol to 5ß-ketodiol, commonly referred as the "black box", remains hypothetical and whether there are still unidentified enzymes is unknown. The black box would include some oxidative steps, which are believed to be mediated by P450 enzymes. To identify new enzyme(s) involved in steroid synthesis, we analyzed by small-scale microarray the expression of all the genes encoding P450 enzymes of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae in active steroidogenic organs of adults, ovaries from blood-fed females and male reproductive tracts, compared to inactive steroidogenic organs, ovaries from non-blood-fed females. Some genes encoding P450 enzymes were specifically overexpressed in female ovaries after a blood-meal or in male reproductive tracts but only three genes were found to be overexpressed in active steroidogenic organs of both females and males: cyp307a1, cyp4g16 and cyp6n1. Among these genes, only cyp307a1 has an expression pattern similar to other mosquito steroidogenic genes. Moreover, loss-of-function by transient RNAi targeting cyp307a1 disrupted ecdysteroid production demonstrating that this gene is required for ecdysteroid biosynthesis in Anopheles gambiae.

The central role of mosquito cytochrome P450 CYP6Zs in insecticide detoxification revealed by functional expression and structural modelling.

The resistance of mosquitoes to chemical insecticides is threatening vector control programmes worldwide. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs) are known to play a major role in insecticide resistance, allowing resistant insects to metabolize insecticides at a higher rate. Among them, members of the mosquito CYP6Z subfamily, like Aedes aegypti CYP6Z8 and its Anopheles gambiae orthologue CYP6Z2, have been frequently associated with pyrethroid resistance. However, their role in the pyrethroid degradation pathway remains unclear. In the present study, we created a genetically modified yeast strain overexpressing Ae. aegypti cytochrome P450 reductase and CYP6Z8, thereby producing the first mosquito P450-CPR (NADPH-cytochrome P450-reductase) complex in a yeast recombinant system. The results of the present study show that: (i) CYP6Z8 metabolizes PBAlc (3-phenoxybenzoic alcohol) and PBAld (3-phenoxybenzaldehyde), common pyrethroid metabolites produced by carboxylesterases, producing PBA (3-phenoxybenzoic acid); (ii) CYP6Z8 transcription is induced by PBAlc, PBAld and PBA; (iii) An. gambiae CYP6Z2 metabolizes PBAlc and PBAld in the same way; (iv) PBA is the major metabolite produced in vivo and is excreted without further modification; and (v) in silico modelling of substrate-enzyme interactions supports a similar role of other mosquito CYP6Zs in pyrethroid degradation. By playing a pivotal role in the degradation of pyrethroid insecticides, mosquito CYP6Zs thus represent good targets for mosquito-resistance management strategies.

Molecular mechanisms associated with increased tolerance to the neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid in the dengue vector Aedes aegypti.

Mosquitoes are vectors of several major human diseases and their control is mainly based on the use of chemical insecticides. Resistance of mosquitoes to organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids led to a regain of interest for the use of neonicotinoid insecticides in vector control. The present study investigated the molecular basis of neonicotinoid resistance in the mosquito Aedes aegypti. A strain susceptible to insecticides was selected at the larval stage with imidacloprid. After eight generations of selection, larvae of the selected strain (Imida-R) showed a 5.4-fold increased tolerance to imidacloprid while adult tolerance level remained low. Imida-R larvae showed significant cross-tolerance to other neonicotinoids but not to pyrethroids, organophosphates and carbamates. Transcriptome profiling identified 344 and 108 genes differentially transcribed in larvae and adults of the Imida-R strain compared to the parental strain. Most of these genes encode detoxification enzymes, cuticle proteins, hexamerins as well as other proteins involved in cell metabolism. Among detoxification enzymes, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs) and glucosyl/glucuronosyl transferases (UDPGTs) were over-represented. Bioassays with enzyme inhibitors and biochemical assays confirmed the contribution of P450s with an increased capacity of the Imida-R microsomes to metabolize imidacloprid in presence of NADPH. Comparison of substrate recognition sites and imidacloprid docking models of six CYP6s over-transcribed in the Imida-R strain together with Bemisia tabaci CYP6CM1vQ and Drosophila melanogaster CYP6G1, both able to metabolize imidacloprid, suggested that CYP6BB2 and CYP6N12 are good candidates for imidacloprid metabolism in Ae. aegypti. The present study revealed that imidacloprid tolerance in mosquitoes can arise after few generations of selection at the larval stage but does not lead to a significant tolerance of adults. As in other insects, P450-mediated insecticide metabolism appears to play a major role in imidacloprid tolerance in mosquitoes.

Mutations in the neverland gene turned Drosophila pachea into an obligate specialist species.

Most living species exploit a limited range of resources. However, little is known about how tight associations build up during evolution between such specialist species and the hosts they use. We examined the dependence of Drosophila pachea on its single host, the senita cactus. Several amino acid changes in the Neverland oxygenase rendered D. pachea unable to transform cholesterol into 7-dehydrocholesterol (the first reaction in the steroid hormone biosynthetic pathway in insects) and thus made D. pachea dependent on the uncommon sterols of its host plant. The neverland mutations increase survival on the cactus's unusual sterols and are in a genomic region that faced recent positive selection. This study illustrates how relatively few genetic changes in a single gene may restrict the ecological niche of a species.

CYP18A1, a key enzyme of Drosophila steroid hormone inactivation, is essential for metamorphosis.

Ecdysteroids are steroid hormones, which coordinate major developmental transitions in insects. Both the rises and falls in circulating levels of active hormones are important for coordinating molting and metamorphosis, making both ecdysteroid biosynthesis and inactivation of physiological relevance. We demonstrate that Drosophila melanogaster Cyp18a1 encodes a cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP) with 26-hydroxylase activity, a prominent step in ecdysteroid catabolism. A clear ortholog of Cyp18a1 exists in most insects and crustaceans. When Cyp18a1 is transfected in Drosophila S2 cells, extensive conversion of 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) into 20-hydroxyecdysonoic acid is observed. This is a multi-step process, which involves the formation of 20,26-dihydroxyecdysone as an intermediate. In Drosophila larvae, Cyp18a1 is expressed in many target tissues of 20E. We examined the consequences of Cyp18a1 inactivation on Drosophila development. Null alleles generated by excision of a P element and RNAi knockdown of Cyp18a1 both result in pupal lethality, possibly as a consequence of impaired ecdysteroid degradation. Our data suggest that the inactivation of 20E is essential for proper development and that CYP18A1 is a key enzyme in this process.

Characterization of ecdysteroids in Drosophila melanogaster by enzyme immunoassay and nano-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

Ecdysteroids are polyhydroxylated steroids that function as molting hormones in insects. 20-Hydroxyecdysone (a 27C-ecdysteroid) is classically considered as the major steroid hormone of Drosophilamelanogaster, but this insect also contains 28C-ecdysteroids. This arises from both the use of several dietary sterols as precursors for the synthesis of its steroid hormones, and its inability to dealkylate the 28C-phytosterols to produce cholesterol. The nature of Drosophila ecdysteroids has been re-investigated using both high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to enzyme immunoassay and a particularly sensitive nano-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methodology, while taking advantage of recently available ecdysteroid standards isolated from plants. In vitro incubations of the larval steroidogenic organ, the ring-gland, reveals the synthesis of ecdysone, 20-deoxy-makisterone A and a third less polar compound identified as the 24-epimer of the latter, while wandering larvae contain the three corresponding 20-hydroxylated ecdysteroids. This pattern results from the simultaneous use of higher plant sterols (from maize) and fungal sterols (from yeast). The physiological relevance of all these ecdysteroids, which display different affinities to the ecdysteroid receptors, is still a matter of debate.

Independent elaboration of steroid hormone signaling pathways in metazoans.

Steroid hormones regulate many physiological processes in vertebrates, nematodes, and arthropods through binding to nuclear receptors (NR), a metazoan-specific family of ligand-activated transcription factors. The main steps controlling the diversification of this family are now well-understood. In contrast, the origin and evolution of steroid ligands remain mysterious, although this is crucial for understanding the emergence of modern endocrine systems. Using a comparative genomic approach, we analyzed complete metazoan genomes to provide a comprehensive view of the evolution of major enzymatic players implicated in steroidogenesis at the whole metazoan scale. Our analysis reveals that steroidogenesis has been independently elaborated in the 3 main bilaterian lineages, and that steroidogenic cytochrome P450 enzymes descended from those that detoxify xenobiotics.

Anopheles gambiae males produce and transfer the vitellogenic steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone to females during mating.

In female insects, the steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) plays a major role in activating vitellogenesis, a process required for egg development. By contrast with vertebrates, production of large amounts of hormonal steroids has not been reported in adult male insects. In the present study, we analyzed steroidogenesis in both male and female adult of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae and we found that A. gambiae male mosquitoes produce high amounts of the steroid hormone 20E. Importantly, we found that male accessory glands, but not testes, are the source of 20E. Moreover, this steroid hormone is stored in male accessory glands and delivered to females during mating. These findings suggest that male 20E may not act as a true male sex steroid, but more likely as an allohormone. Our results give new insights into species-specific physiological processes that govern the reproductive success of the malaria mosquito. This could thus lead to the identification of new target genes for manipulating male and/or female reproductive success, a promising way to reduce or eliminate mosquito population and therefore to control malaria transmission.

Prothoracicotropic hormone regulates developmental timing and body size in Drosophila.

In insects, control of body size is intimately linked to nutritional quality as well as environmental and genetic cues that regulate the timing of developmental transitions. Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) has been proposed to play an essential role in regulating the production and/or release of ecdysone, a steroid hormone that stimulates molting and metamorphosis. In this report, we examine the consequences on Drosophila development of ablating the PTTH-producing neurons. Surprisingly, PTTH production is not essential for molting or metamorphosis. Instead, loss of PTTH results in delayed larval development and eclosion of larger flies with more cells. Prolonged feeding, without changing the rate of growth, causes the overgrowth and is a consequence of low ecdysteroid titers. These results indicate that final body size in insects is determined by a balance between growth-rate regulators such as insulin and developmental timing cues such as PTTH that set the duration of the feeding interval.

Study of steroidogenesis in pupae of the forensically important blow fly Protophormia terraenovae (Robineau-Desvoidy) (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

Protophormia terraenovae is a forensically important fly whose development time is studied by forensic entomologists to establish the time elapsed since death (post-mortem interval, PMI). Quantity and nature of ecdysteroid hormones present in P. terraenovae pupae were analysed in order to determine if they could be correlated to the age of pupae found on corpses and thereby could give information on the PMI. Ecdysteroid levels were quantified during the pupal-adult development of synchronised animals using enzyme immunoassay (EIA), a sensitive method allowing acurate quantification in one pupa. Two types of pupae were compared: "fresh" pupae, kept frozen until analysis and "experimentally dried" pupae, which were left for several weeks at ambient temperature. A peak of ecdysteroids was detected between 36 and 96 h after pupariation in fresh animals. It was not observed in "experimentally dried" pupae. High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses combined with EIA showed that 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) was the major free ecdysteroid at various pupal ages. Enzymatic hydrolysis experiments revealed the presence of apolar conjugates at all ages tested. However, neither qualitative nor quantitative difference was detected between early and late pupae. This study gives precise information on the nature and quantity of ecdysteroids in the course of pupal development of a calliphorid fly. The limits of using ecdysteroid measurement as a tool in forensic entomology are discussed.

Antagonistic actions of ecdysone and insulins determine final size in Drosophila.

All animals coordinate growth and maturation to reach their final size and shape. In insects, insulin family molecules control growth and metabolism, whereas pulses of the steroid 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) initiate major developmental transitions. We show that 20E signaling also negatively controls animal growth rates by impeding general insulin signaling involving localization of the transcription factor dFOXO and transcription of the translation inhibitor 4E-BP. We also demonstrate that the larval fat body, equivalent to the vertebrate liver, is a key relay element for ecdysone-dependent growth inhibition. Hence, ecdysone counteracts the growth-promoting action of insulins, thus forming a humoral regulatory loop that determines organismal size.

Phantom encodes the 25-hydroxylase of Drosophila melanogaster and Bombyx mori: a P450 enzyme critical in ecdysone biosynthesis.

We have reported recently the identification and characterization of the last three mitochondrial cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) controlling the biosynthesis of 20-hydroxyecdysone, the molting hormone of insects. These are encoded by the following genes: disembodied (dib, Cyp302a1, the 22-hydroxylase); shadow (sad, Cyp315a1, the 2-hydroxylase); and shade (shd, Cyp314a1, the 20-hydroxylase). Employing similar gene identification and transfection techniques and subsequent biochemical analysis of the expressed enzymatic activity, we report the identity of the Drosophila gene phantom (phm), located at 17D1 of the X chromosome, as encoding the microsomal 25-hydroxylase (Cyp306a1). Similar analysis following differential display-based gene identification has also resulted in the characterization of the corresponding 25-hydroxylase gene in Bombyx mori. Confirmation of 2,22,25-trideoxyecdysone (3beta,5beta-ketodiol) conversion to 2,22-dideoxyecdysone (3beta,5beta-ketotriol) mediated by either Phm enzyme employed LC, MS and definitive NMR analysis. In situ developmental gene analysis, in addition to northern, western and RT-PCR techniques during Drosophila embryonic, larval and adult development, are consistent with this identification. That is, strong expression of phm is restricted to the prothoracic gland cells of the Drosophila larval ring gland, where it undergoes dramatic changes in expression, and in the adult ovary, but also in the embryonic epidermis. During the last larval-larval transition in Bombyx, a similar expression pattern in the prothoracic gland is observed, but as in Drosophila, slight expression is also present in other tissues, suggesting a possible additional role for the phantom enzyme.

Shade is the Drosophila P450 enzyme that mediates the hydroxylation of ecdysone to the steroid insect molting hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone.

The steroid 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) is the primary regulatory hormone that mediates developmental transitions in insects and other arthropods. 20E is produced from ecdysone (E) by the action of a P450 monooxygenase that hydroxylates E at carbon 20. The gene coding for this key enzyme of ecdysteroidogenesis has not been identified definitively in any insect. We show here that the Drosophila E-20-monooxygenase (E20MO) is the product of the shade (shd) locus (cytochrome p450, CYP314a1). When shd is transfected into Drosophila S2 cells, extensive conversion of E to 20E is observed, whereas in sorted homozygous shd embryos, no E20MO activity is apparent either in vivo or in vitro. Mutations in shd lead to severe disruptions in late embryonic morphogenesis and exhibit phenotypes identical to those seen in disembodied (dib) and shadow (sad) mutants, two other genes of the Halloween class that code for P450 enzymes that catalyze the final two steps in the synthesis of E from 2,22-dideoxyecdysone. Unlike dib and sad, shd is not expressed in the ring gland but is expressed in peripheral tissues such as the epidermis, midgut, Malpighian tubules, and fat body, i.e., tissues known to be major sites of E20MO activity in a variety of insects. However, the tissue in which shd is expressed does not appear to be important for developmental function because misexpression of shd in the embryonic mesoderm instead of the epidermis, the normal embryonic tissue in which shd is expressed, rescues embryonic lethality.

Molecular and biochemical characterization of two P450 enzymes in the ecdysteroidogenic pathway of Drosophila melanogaster.

Five different enzymatic activities, catalyzed by both microsomal and mitochondrial cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs), are strongly implicated in the biosynthesis of ecdysone (E) from cholesterol. However, none of these enzymes have been characterized completely. The present data show that the wild-type genes of two members of the Halloween family of embryonic lethals, disembodied (dib) and shadow (sad), code for mitochondrial cytochromes P450 that mediate the last two hydroxylation reactions in the ecdysteroidogenic pathway in Drosophila, namely the C22- and C2-hydroxylases. When sad (CYP315A1) is transfected into Drosophila S2 cells, the cells metabolize 2-deoxyecdysone (2dE) to E and the [3H]ketotriol (2,22-dideoxyecdysone) to 22-deoxyecdysone. In contrast, dib (CYP302A1) is responsible for the conversion of the [3H]ketotriol to [3H]2dE. When cells are transfected with both dib and sad, they metabolize the [3H]ketotriol to [3H]E in high yield. The expression of sad and dib is concentrated within the individual segments of the developing epidermis when there is a surge of ecdysteroid midway through embryogenesis. This result occurs before the ring gland has developed and suggests that the embryonic epidermis is a site of ecdysteroid biosynthesis. This pattern then diminishes, and, during late embryogenesis, expression of both genes is concentrated in the prothoracic gland cells of the developing ring gland. Expression of dib and sad continues to be localized in this endocrine compartment during larval development, being maximal in both the late second and third instar larvae, about the time of the premolt peaks in the ecdysteroid titer.

Molting cycle-dependent expression of CYP4C15, a cytochrome P450 enzyme putatively involved in ecdysteroidogenesis in the crayfish, Orconectes limosus.

A cytochrome P450 enzyme cDNA (CYP4C15) has been previously cloned from a cDNA library of crayfish steroidogenic glands (Y-organs). The conceptual translation of the CYP4C15 cDNA sequence was analyzed for regions of putative high antigenicity and a mixture of two synthetic peptides was chosen for the production of a specific polyclonal antibody. Western blot analysis on Y-organ subcellular fractions indicated an endoplasmic reticulum location of CYP4C15, in agreement with the structural feature of the predicted protein, i.e. the presence of a hydrophobic N-terminal segment. The protein is only expressed in Y-organs, thus showing a similar distribution to the corresponding mRNA. From this tissue specific expression, it has been postulated that CYP4C15 would play a role in ecdysteroid biosynthesis rather than detoxification and the variations of its expression during a molt cycle were carefully examined. CYP4C15 is not detectable in intermolt animals, expression levels are maximal during early premolt and decrease during late premolt. The results are discussed in relation to the variations of hemolymphatic ecdysteroid titers and steroidogenic capacities of the Y-organs during the molt cycle.