Protective properties of Avène Thermal Spring Water on biomechanical, ultrastructural and clinical parameters of human skin.

BACKGROUND: Thermal Spring Water (TSW) has been recognized to have beneficial effects on skin; however, the mechanisms underlying these are not completely elucidated. AIMS: We compared the effects of Avène TSW with mineral-rich (MR) TSW on the biomechanical properties of the skin using mechanistic ex vivo assays and clinical studies. METHODS: Ex vivo studies included the effect of both TSWs on the structure of the surface of human skin explants using scanning electron microscopy (SEM); mineral elemental content on the skin surface using SEM coupled to energy dispersing X-ray spectroscopy; and the stress properties of the stratum corneum (SC) when exposed to dehydration. Human clinical studies were conducted to compare the soothing effect of TSWs after a dermatological chemical peeling of face skin and to evaluate the overall sensitive scale of consumers using Avène TSW for 7 days. RESULTS: Both TSWs preserved surface skin ultrastructure; however, crystals formed from MR-TSW were needle-like and formed small grains, present in clusters heterogeneously spread over the surface. Needle crystals were mainly composed of calcium, while small clusters were mainly composed of sulphur. By contrast, Avène TSW-formed crystals composed of sodium and chlorine only were regular in shape and homogeneously distributed across the skin surface. Peak stress of SC layers was increased by MR-TSW, whereas Avène TSW showed a comparatively reduced effect on dehydration and stress. The difference in the two TSW types was reflected in clinical findings comparing postpeeling redness after TSW application. Avène TSW significantly decreased postpeeling redness, while MR-TSW increased it. The overall sensitive scale of consumers was decreased by 47% using Avène TSW for 7 days. CONCLUSIONS: Avène TSW decreases postpeeling redness and soothes sensitive skin in human volunteers. Mechanistic studies suggested that differences in biomechanical effects could be linked to differences in calcium content of the TSW.

Emollient structure and chemical functionality effects on the biomechanical function of human stratum corneum.

OBJECTIVE: Cosmetic emollients are widely used in skincare formulations due to their ability to 'soften' the skin and modulate formulation spreadability. Though emollients are commonly used, little is known about their effects on the biomechanical barrier properties of human stratum corneum (SC), which play a critical role in consumer perception of formulation efficacy. Accordingly, our objective was to provide new insights with a study involving fourteen cosmetic emollient molecules with widely varying structures, molecular weights, SC diffusivities, topological polar surface areas (TPSAs), viscosities and chemical functionalities. METHODS: Mechanical stress in the SC was measured in vitro using a substrate curvature measurement technique. Stress development due to SC drying was measured before and after topical treatment with cosmetic emollients. Emollient diffusivity and alterations to lipid content in SC after treatment were measured via ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. The maximum penetration volume of emollient in SC was characterized to elucidate mechanisms underlying emollient effects on stress. RESULTS: The application of all cosmetic emollients caused a reduction in SC mechanical stress under dehydrating conditions, and a linear correlation was discovered between emollient penetration volume and the degree of stress reduction. These molecules also induced increases in stress equilibration rate, signalling changes to SC transport kinetics. Stress equilibration rate increases linearly correlated with decreasing intensity of the νCH2 band, indicating a previously unknown interaction between cosmetic emollients and SC lipids. Stress and penetration volume results were rationalized in terms of a multi-parameter model including emollient molecular weight, diffusivity, TPSA and viscosity. CONCLUSION: We provide a new rational basis for understanding the effects of cosmetic emollient choice on biomechanical properties affecting SC barrier function and consumer perception. We demonstrate for the first time that emollients very likely reduce SC mechanical stress through their ability to take up volume when penetrating the SC, and how molecular weight, SC diffusivity, TPSA and viscosity are predictive of this ability. As cosmetic formulations continue to evolve to meet the needs of customers, emollient molecules can be selected that not only contribute to formulation texture and/or spreadability but that also leverage this novel connection between emollient penetration and SC biomechanics.

OBJECTIF: Les émollients cosmétiques sont largement utilisés dans les formulations de soins de la peau en raison de leur capacité à «adoucir¼ la peau et à moduler la capacité d'étalement de la formulation. Bien que les émollients soient couramment utilisés, on en sait peu sur leurs effets sur les propriétés de barrière biomécanique de la couche cornée humaine (SC), qui jouent un rôle essentiel dans la perception par les consommateurs de l'efficacité de la formulation. En conséquence, notre objectif était de fournir de nouvelles perspectives avec une étude impliquant quatorze molécules émollientes cosmétiques avec des structures, des poids moléculaires, des diffusivités SC, des surfaces polaires topologiques (TPSA), des viscosités et des fonctionnalités chimiques très variables. MÉTHODES: La contrainte mécanique dans le SC a été mesurée in vitro en utilisant une technique de mesure de la courbure du substrat. Le développement du stress dû au séchage SC a été mesuré avant et après un traitement topique avec des émollients cosmétiques. La diffusivité émolliente et les altérations de la teneur en lipides dans la SC après le traitement ont été mesurées par spectroscopie ATR-FTIR. Le volume de pénétration maximal de l'émollient dans SC a été caractérisé pour élucider les mécanismes sous-jacents aux effets émollients sur le stress. RÉSULTATS: L'application de tous les émollients cosmétiques a entraîné une réduction de la contrainte mécanique SC dans des conditions de déshydratation, et une corrélation linéaire a été découverte entre le volume de pénétration de l'émollient et le degré de réduction de la contrainte. Ces molécules ont également induit des augmentations du taux d'équilibrage des contraintes, signalant des changements dans la cinétique de transport SC. Le taux d'équilibrage des contraintes augmente linéairement en corrélation avec la diminution de l'intensité de la bande νCH2 , indiquant une interaction jusque-là inconnue entre les émollients cosmétiques et les lipides SC. Les résultats du stress et du volume de pénétration ont été rationalisés en termes d'un modèle multi-paramètres comprenant le poids moléculaire émollient, la diffusivité, le TPSA et la viscosité. CONCLUSION: Nous fournissons une nouvelle base rationnelle pour comprendre les effets du choix des émollients cosmétiques sur les propriétés biomécaniques affectant la fonction de barrière SC et la perception du consommateur. Nous démontrons pour la première fois que les émollients réduisent très probablement la contrainte mécanique SC grâce à leur capacité à prendre du volume lors de la pénétration du SC, et comment le poids moléculaire, la diffusivité SC, le TPSA et la viscosité sont prédictifs de cette capacité. Alors que les formulations cosmétiques continuent d'évoluer pour répondre aux besoins des clients, des molécules émollientes peuvent être sélectionnées qui contribuent non seulement à la texture et / ou à l'étalement de la formulation, mais qui exploitent également cette nouvelle connexion entre la pénétration des émollients et la biomécanique SC.

Effect of emulsifiers on drying stress and intercellular cohesion in human stratum corneum.

OBJECTIVES: Emulsifier molecules, with their amphiphilic character, are ubiquitous in moisturizing creams and primarily serve to disperse the water-insoluble molecules such as emollients, oils, lipids and fats in water. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of emulsifier molecules on the barrier and biomechanical properties of human stratum corneum (SC) and to compare the efficacy of emulsifier molecules when used in a fully formulated moisturizing cream. METHODS: We employed methods based on thin-film mechanics to measure the drying stress and intercellular cohesion in the SC. The emulsifier molecules or moisturizing creams formulated with them were applied to a fully hydrated SC adhered to a glass substrate. In-plane stress developed in the SC during drying was then measured by tracking changes in the curvature of the glass substrate. The intercellular cohesion within the SC was measured by means of a double cantilever beam (DCB) set-up, where the treated or untreated SC was sandwiched between two substrates, and the delamination energy calculated by measuring the force required to drive a crack through the SC. Moisturizing cream diffusivity through the stratum corneum was measured by spectroscopic technique and related to internal SC stress and fracture energy. RESULTS: We observe significant differences in the biomechanical behaviour of SC when moisturizing creams with different emulsifier molecules are applied on isolated stratum corneum ex vivo. The reduction in maximum stress varied between 12% and 26% depending on the emulsifier molecules used in the formulation. The intercellular cohesion and the diffusion of molecules in the formulated moisturizing creams through the SC were also found to be strongly dependent on the type of emulsifier molecule used in the formulation. CONCLUSIONS: The biomechanical and barrier properties of the human stratum corneum show strong dependence on the emulsifier molecule used in the moisturizing creams, even when the creams included only ~3 weight% emulsifier molecules. Moreover, we found that the reduction in SC peak stress was strongly correlated with the formulation diffusivity into the SC. The moisturizing creams diffusing fastest into the SC had the largest reduction in peak stress and vice versa.

OBJECTIFS: Les molécules d'émulsifiant, avec leur caractère amphiphile, sont omniprésents dans les crèmes hydratantes et servent principalement à disperser dans l'eau les molécules hydro insolubles telles que les émollients, les huiles, les lipides et les graisses. L'objectif de cette étude était d'étudier l'effet des molécules d'émulsifiant sur les propriétés barrières et biomécaniques de la couche cornée humaine (stratum corneum, SC), et de comparer l'efficacité des molécules d'émulsifiant lorsqu'elles sont utilisées dans une crème hydratante intégralement formulée. MÉTHODES: Nous avons employé des méthodes basées sur des propriétés mécaniques de couches minces pour mesurer le stress de dessèchement et la cohésion intercellulaire dans le SC. Les molécules d'émulsifiant ou les crèmes hydratantes formulées avec ces molécules ont été appliquées sur un SC entièrement hydraté collé à un substrat de verre. Le stress dans le plan développé dans le SC pendant le dessèchement a été mesuré en suivant les changements de courbure du substrat de verre. La cohésion intercellulaire au sein du SC a été mesurée au moyen d'une configuration de faisceau à double cantilever (DCB), où le SC traité ou non traité a été placé entre deux substrats, et l'énergie de délamination calculée en mesurant la force nécessaire pour entrainer une fissure dans la couche cornée. La diffusivité de la crème hydratante dans la couche cornée a été mesurée par la technique spectroscopique, et était liée à l'énergie interne du stress et de la fracture SC. RÉSULTATS: Nous observons des différences significatives dans le comportement biomécanique du SC lorsque des crèmes hydratantes avec différentes molécules d'émulsifiant sont appliquées sur une couche cornée isolée ex vivo. La réduction du stress maximal variait entre 12 % et 26 % en fonction des molécules d'émulsifiant utilisées dans la formulation. La cohésion intercellulaire ainsi que la diffusion des molécules dans les crèmes hydratantes formulées par le biais du SC se sont également révélées fortement dépendantes du type de molécule d'émulsifiant utilisée dans la formulation. CONCLUSION: Les propriétés biomécaniques et barrières de la couche cornée humaine montrent une forte dépendance à la molécule d'émulsifiant utilisée dans les crèmes hydratantes, même lorsque ces crèmes contenaient uniquement plus ou moins 3% de molécules d'émulsifiant. De plus, nous avons constaté que la réduction du stress maximal était fortement corrélée à la diffusivité de la formulation dans le SC. Les crèmes hydratantes qui se diffusent le plus rapidement dans le SC avaient la plus grande réduction du stress maximal et vice versa.

Screening sunscreens: protecting the biomechanical barrier function of skin from solar ultraviolet radiation damage.

OBJECTIVE: Solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation is ubiquitous in human life and well known to cause skin damage that can lead to harmful conditions such as erythema. Although sunscreen is a popular form of protection for some of these conditions, it is unclear whether sunscreen can maintain the mechanical barrier properties of skin. The objective of this study was to determine whether in vitro thin-film mechanical analysis techniques adapted for biological tissue are able to characterize the efficacy of commonly used UV inhibitors and commercial sunscreens to protect the biomechanical barrier properties of stratum corneum (SC) from UV exposure. METHODS: The biomechanical properties of SC samples were assayed through measurements of the SC's drying stress profile and delamination energy. The drying stresses within SC were characterized from the curvature of a borosilicate glass substrate onto which SC had been adhered. Delamination energies were characterized using a double-cantilever beam (DCB) cohesion testing method. Successive DCB specimens were prepared from previously separated specimens by adhering new substrates onto each side of the already tested specimen to probe delamination energies deeper into the SC. These properties of the SC were measured before and after UV exposure, both with and without sunscreens applied, to determine the role of sunscreen in preserving the barrier function of SC. RESULTS: The drying stress in SC starts increasing sooner and rises to a higher plateau stress value after UVA exposure as compared to non-UV-exposed control specimens. For specimens that had sunscreen applied, the UVA-exposed and non-UV-exposed SC had similar drying stress profiles. Additionally, specimens exposed to UVB without protection from sunscreen exhibited significantly lower delamination energies than non-UV-exposed controls. With commercial sunscreen applied, the delamination energy for UV-exposed and non-UV-exposed tissue was consistent, even up to large doses of UVB. CONCLUSION: In vitro thin-film mechanical analysis techniques can readily characterize the effects of SC's exposure to UV radiation. The methods used in this study demonstrated commercial sunscreens were able to preserve the biomechanical properties of SC during UV exposure, thus indicating the barrier function of SC was also maintained.

Moisture-insensitive polycarbosilane films with superior mechanical properties.

We report cross-linked polycarbosilane (CLPCS) films with superior mechanical properties and insensitivity to moisture. CLPCS are prepared by spin-coating and thermal curing of hexylene-bridged disilacyclobutane (DSCB) rings. The resulting films are siloxane-free and hydrophobic, and present good thermal stability and a low dielectric constant of k = 2.5 without the presence of supermicropores and mesopores. The elastic stiffness and fracture resistance of the films substantially exceed those of traditional porous organosilicate glasses because of their unique molecular structure. Moreover, the films show a remarkable insensitivity to moisture attack, which cannot be achieved by traditional organosilicate glasses containing siloxane bonds. These advantages make the films promising candidates for replacing traditional organosilicate glasses currently used in numerous applications, and for use in emerging nanoscience and energy applications that need protection from moisture and harsh environments.

Emollient molecule effects on the drying stresses in human stratum corneum.

BACKGROUND: Emollient molecules are widely used in skin care formulations to improve skin sensory properties and to alleviate dry skin but little is understood regarding their effects on skin biomechanical properties. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effects of emollient molecules on drying stresses in human stratum corneum (SC) and how these stresses are related to SC components and moisture content. METHODS: The substrate curvature method was used to measure the drying stresses in isolated SC following exposure to selected emollient molecules. While SC stresses measured using this method have the same biaxial in vivo stress state and moisture exchange with the environment, a limitation of the method is that moisture cannot be replenished by the underlying skin layers. This provides an opportunity to study the direct effects of emollient treatments on the moisture content and the components of the SC. Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to determine the effects of emollient molecules on SC lipid extraction and conformation. Results Emollient molecules resulted in a complex SC drying stress profile where stresses increased rapidly to peak values and then gradually decreased to significantly lower values compared with the control. The partially occlusive treatments also penetrated into the SC where they caused extraction and changes in lipid conformation. These effects together with their effects on SC moisture content are used to rationalize the drying stress profiles. CONCLUSIONS: Emollient molecules have dramatic effects on SC drying stresses that are related to their effects on intercellular lipids and SC moisture content.

Application of substrate curvature method to differentiate drying stresses in topical coatings and human stratum corneum.

SYNOPSIS: Despite the extensive use of topical coatings in cosmetics, their effect on the mechanical properties of human skin and the perception of skin tightness in the form of drying stresses is not well understood. We describe the application of a recently developed substrate curvature technique to characterize stresses in drying and non-drying occlusive topical coatings. We then extend the technique to measure the combined effects of the coating applied to human stratum corneum (SC) where the overall drying stresses may have contributions from the coating, the SC and the interaction of the coating with the SC. We show how these separate contributions in the coating and SC layers can be differentiated.

Drying stress and damage processes in human stratum corneum.

SYNOPSIS: The drying stresses that develop in stratum corneum (SC) are crucial for its mechanical and biophysical function, its cosmetic feel and appearance, and play a central role in processes of dry skin damage. However, quantitative methods to characterize these stresses are lacking and little understanding exists regarding the effects of drying environment, chemical exposures and moisturizing treatments. We describe the application of a substrate curvature technique adapted for biological tissue to accurately characterize SC drying stresses as a function of time following environmental pre-conditioning and chemical treatment in a range of drying environments. SC stresses were observed to increase to stress levels of up to approximately 3 MPa over periods of 8 h depending on pretreatment and drying environment. A unique relationship between the SC stress and water in the drying environment was established. The effect of glycerol on lowering SC stresses and damaging surfactants on elevating SC stresses were quantified. Extensions of the method to continuous monitoring of SC stresses in response to changes in environmental moisture content and temperature are reported. Finally, a biomechanics framework to account for the SC drying stress as a mechanical driving force for dry skin damage is presented.

Effects of an adhesion promoter on the debond resistance of a metal-polymethylmethacrylate interface.

Debonding and premature failure of prostheticpolymethylmethacrylate interfaces have been shown to be exacerbated by exposure to physiological environment. In efforts to counteract these hydrolytic degradation effects, two clinically relevant Co-Cr-Mo surface morphologies were treated with an organosilane adhesion promoter (gamma-methacyloxypropyltrimethoxy) before interface bonding. Samples were quantitatively characterized in terms of the adhesion (fracture) and subcritical debond growth-rate (fatigue) behavior of the interface. The steady-state interface debond resistance, Gss (J/m2), was shown to increase with application of the silane pretreatment both in air (20 degrees C, 45% relative humidity) and simulated physiological environment (37 degrees C, Ringer's). Similarly, positive shifts in the subcritical debond threshold, deltaG(TH), values are observed for silane pretreated interfaces. A shift in the debond path from primarily adhesive failure in untreated surfaces to cohesive failure between the silane layer and bulk polymethylmethacrylate for silane treated surfaces was observed. Silane pretreatment of Co-Cr-Mo surfaces was shown to effectively limit the degree of the environmental degradation. General insights to the effects of surface roughness, chemical enhancement, and the environmental effects on the thermodynamics at the interface and resulting debond behavior are discussed.

Effects of fatigue loading and PMMA precoating on the adhesion and subcritical debonding of prosthetic-PMMA interfaces.

Debonding of clinically relevant CoCrMo-polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) interfaces is shown to occur subcritically under fatigue loading, implying that debonding may occur at loads much lower than those required for catastrophic failure. Interface fracture mechanics samples containing precoated and uncoated grit-blasted CoCrMo substrates and a PMMA layer were constructed and quantitatively evaluated in terms of their critical interface adhesion and subcritical debond behavior. The precoat surfaces had markedly enhanced adhesion and fatigue resistance in both air and simulated physiological environmental conditions compared to the uncoated samples. Constraint of the PMMA layer does not significantly affect the debond process for thickness between 2- and 5-mm. In addition, wear particles were collected and shown to be consistent with particle sizes reported in vivo and are on the scale of the metal surface roughness. Life prediction methods using the subcritical debond-growth data are discussed.

Adhesion and reliability of interfaces in cemented total joint arthroplasties.

Debonding of the prosthetic/polymethylmethacrylate interface has been implicated in the initial failure process of cemented total hip arthroplasties. However, little quantitative understanding of the debonding process, as well as of the optimum interface morphology for enhanced resistance to debonding, exists. Accordingly, a fracture-mechanics approach has been used in which adhesion at the interface is characterized in terms of the interface fracture energy, G (J/m2), and shown to be a strong function of the morphology, debonding length, and loading mode of the interface. Double-cantilever-beam and four-point-flexure fracture-mechanics samples containing four clinically relevant prosthetic surface preparations were prepared to survey a range of interface roughness and loading modes. Adhesion at the interface could not be characterized with a single-valued material property but was found to exhibit resistance-curve behavior in which resistance to debonding increased with both the initial debond extension and the roughness of the interface. Values of debonding initiation, Go, were relatively insensitive to the roughness of the surface and the loading mode, whereas steady-state fracture resistance of the interface, Gss, increased significantly with the roughness and shear loading of the interface. These quantitative results suggest that debonding of the prosthetic/polymethylmethacrylate interface may be primarily attributed to surface interactions such as interlocking and the pullout of rough asperities that occur behind the debond tip. A simple mechanics analysis of such interactions was performed and revealed increases in the fracture resistance of the interface that were consistent with experimentally measured values.

Reliability of PMMA bone cement fixation: fracture and fatigue crack-growth behaviour.

Fracture mechanics tests were performed to characterize the fracture toughness and fatigue crack-growth behaviour of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) bone cement, commonly used in joint replacement surgery. Compact tension specimens of various thicknesses were prepared and tested in both air and Ringer's solution. Contrary to previous reports citing toughness as a single valued parameter, the PMMA was found to exhibit resistance-curve behaviour with a plateau toughness of approximately 0.6 MPa m1/2 in air, and approximately 2.0 MPa m1/2 in Ringer's solution. The increased toughness in Ringer's solution is thought to arise from the plasticizing effect of the environment. Under cyclic loads, the material displayed true mechanical fatigue failure in both environments; fatigue crack-growth rates, da/dN, were measured over the range approximately 10(-10) to 10(-6) m/cycle and found to display a power-law dependence on the stress intensity range, DeltaK. The cement was found to be more resistant to fatigue-crack propagation in Ringer's solution than in air. Wear debris was observed on the fatigue fracture surfaces, particularly those produced in air. These findings and the validity of using a linear-elastic fracture mechanics approach for viscoelastic materials are discussed in the context of providing more reliable and fracture-resistant cemented joints.

Mechanical properties of carbonated apatite bone mineral substitute: strength, fracture and fatigue behaviour.

The synthesis and properties of carbonated apatite materials have received considerable attention due to their importance for medical and dental applications. Such apatites closely resemble the mineral phase of bone, exhibiting superior osteoconductive and osteogenic properties. When formed at physiological temperature they present significant potential for bone repair and fracture fixation. The present study investigates the mechanical properties of a carbonated apatite cancellous bone cement. Flexural strength was measured in three and four point bending, and the fracture toughness and fatigue crack-growth behaviour was measured using chevron and disc-shaped compact tension specimens. The average flexural strength was found to be approximately 0.468 MPa, and the fracture toughness was approximately 0.14 MPa radical m. Fatigue crack-growth rates exhibited a power law dependence on the applied stress intensity range with a crack growth exponent m=17. The fatigue threshold value was found to be approximately 0.085 MPa radical m. The mechanical properties exhibited by the carbonated apatite were found to be similar to those of other brittle cellular foams. Toughness values and fatigue crack-growth thresholds were compared to other brittle foams, bone and ceramic materials. Implications for structural integrity and longer term reliability are discussed.

Cyclic fatigue and fracture in pyrolytic carbon-coated graphite mechanical heart-valve prostheses: role of small cracks in life prediction.

A fracture-mechanics based study has performed to characterize the fracture toughness and rates of cyclic fatigue-crack growth of incipient flaws in prosthetic heart-valve components made of pyrolytic carbon-coated graphite. Such data are required to predict the safe structural lifetime of mechanical heart-valve prostheses using damage-tolerant analysis. Unlike previous studies where fatigue-crack propagation data were obtained using through-thickness, long cracks (approximately 2-20 mm long), growing in conventional (e.g., compact-tension) samples, experiments were performed on physically small cracks (approximately 100-600 microns long), initiated on the surface of the pyrolytic-carbon coating to simulate reality. Small-crack toughness results were found to agree closely with those measured conventionally with long cracks. However, similar to well-known observations in metal fatigue, it was found that based on the usual computations of the applied (far-field) driving force in terms of the maximum stress intensity, Kmax, small fatigue cracks grew at rates that exceeded those of long cracks at the same applied stress intensity, and displayed a negative dependency on Kmax; moreover, they grew at applied stress intensities less than the fatigue threshold value, below which long cracks are presumed dormant. To resolve this apparent discrepancy, it is shown that long and small crack results can be normalized, provided growth rates are characterized in terms of the total (near-tip) stress intensity (incorporating, for example, the effect of residual stress); with this achieved, in principle, either form of data can be used for life prediction of implant devices. Inspection of the long and small crack results reveals extensive scatter inherent in both forms of growth-rate data for the pyrolytic-carbon material.

On the fractography of overload, stress corrosion, and cyclic fatigue failures in pyrolytic-carbon materials used in prosthetic heart-valve devices.

A scanning electron microscopy study is reported of the nature and morphology of fracture surfaces in pyrocarbons commonly used for the manufacture of mechanical heart-valve prostheses. Specifically, silicon-alloyed low-temperature-isotropic (LTI)-pyrolytic carbon is examined, both as a coating on graphite and as a monolithic material, following overload, stress corrosion (static fatigue), and cyclic fatigue failures in a simulated physiological environment of 37 degrees C Ringer's solution. It is found that, in contrast to most metallic materials yet in keeping with many ceramics, there are no distinct fracture morphologies in pyro-carbons which are characteristic of a specific mode of loading; fracture surfaces appear to be identical for both catastrophic and subcritical crack growth under either sustained or cyclic loading. We conclude that caution should be used in assigning the likely cause of failure of pyrolytic carbon heart-valve components using fractographic examination.

Cyclic fatigue-crack propagation, stress-corrosion, and fracture-toughness behavior in pyrolytic carbon-coated graphite for prosthetic heart valve applications.

Fracture-mechanics tests were performed to characterize the cyclic fatigue, stress-corrosion cracking, and fracture-toughness behavior of a pyrolytic carbon-coated graphite composite material used in the manufacture of cardiac valve prostheses. Testing was carried out using compact tension C(T) samples containing "atomically" sharp precracks, both in room-temperature air and principally in a simulated physiological environment of 37 degrees C Ringer's lactate solution. Under sustained (monotonic) loads, the composite exhibited resistance-curve behavior, with a fracture toughness (KIc) between 1.1 and 1.9 MPa square root of m, and subcritical stress-corrosion crack velocities (da/dt) which were a function of the stress intensity K raised to the 74th power (over the range approximately 10(-9) to over 10(-5) m/s). More importantly, contrary to common perception, under cyclic loading conditions the composite was found to display true (cyclic) fatigue failure in both environments; fatigue-crack growth rates (da/dN) were seen to be a function of the 19th power of the stress-intensity range delta K (over the range approximately 10(-11) to over 10(-8) m/cycle). As subcritical crack velocities under cyclic loading were found to be many orders of magnitude faster than those measured under equivalent monotonic loads and to occur at typically 45% lower stress-intensity levels, cyclic fatigue in pyrolytic carbon-coated graphite is reasoned to be a vital consideration in the design and life-prediction procedures of prosthetic devices manufactured from this material.