Does past offending behaviors catch up with you? A study examining the relationship between traffic offending history and fatal crash involvement.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the current study was to compare the traffic histories of drivers fatally injured in a road traffic crash, to alive drivers of the same age and gender in order to determine if key markers of increased fatality-risk could be identified. METHODS: The case sample comprised 1,139 (82% male) deceased drivers, while the control sample consisted of 1,139 registered Queensland drivers (who were individually matched to the case sample on age and gender). RESULTS: Using a logistic regression model, and adjusting for age and gender, it was found that a greater number of offenses predicted greater odds of fatal crash involvement, with each increase in offense frequency category increasing ones' odds by 1.98 (95% CI: 1.8, 2.18). When each offense type was considered individually, dangerous driving offenses were most influential, predicting a 3.44 (95% CI: 2, 5.93) increased odds of being in the case group, followed by the following offense types: learner/provisional (2.88, 95% CI: 1.75, 4.74), drink and drug driving (2.82, 95% CI: 1.97, 4.04), not wearing a seatbelt/helmet (2.63, 95% CI: 1.53, 4.51), licensing offenses (1.87, 95% CI: 1.41, 2.49), and speeding (1.48, 95% CI: 1.33, 1.66). In contrast, mobile phone and road rules offenses were not identified as significant predictors. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate that engagement in a range of aberrant driving behaviors may result in an increased odds of future fatal crash involvement, which has multiple implications for the sanctioning and management of apprehended offenders.

A study into the nature and extent of drug driving recidivism in Queensland (Australia).

INTRODUCTION: While research has reported on overall prevalence rates of drug driving, the extent of recidivist offending has yet to be explored. The objective of this research was to examine recidivistic behaviors detected through Roadside Drug Testing (RDT) in Queensland (between December 2007 and June 2020), with a focus on: Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 3,4-Methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA), and methamphetamine (MA). METHOD: Data were provided by the Queensland Police Service, and contained information on positive drug detections that were confirmed via laboratory analysis. RESULTS: The analyses revealed 50,442 unique offenders with a total of 67,727 offenses, as 25% (N = 12,490) of all offenders had been apprehended more than once (ranging from 2 to 11 offences). MA use was more common among recidivist offenders, whereas THC was more common for those with one offense. On average, the days between offenses decreased with increases in offense number. CONCLUSIONS: The findings provide evidence for the extent of drug driving recidivism on Queensland roads. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: To deter recidivists and the greater motorist population from drug driving, there is need for greater resources dedicated to RDT to increase both the perceived and real likelihood of detection.

Versatile, but not focused, traffic offenders are more likely to be at fault for a fatal crash.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to determine whether drivers who had received more traffic infringements were more likely to be at fault for the crash in which they were killed. METHOD: The current dataset was derived from the crash and traffic history records provided by the Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads and Coroner's Court for every driver, with available records, who was killed in a crash in Queensland, Australia, between 2011 and 2019 (N = 1,136). The most common traffic offenses in the current sample were speeding, disobeying road rules, driving under the influence of drugs and alcohol, and unlicensed driving. Logistic regression models were used to compute odds ratios for the number of overall offenses, the number of specific offense types, and for specific offending profiles that were derived from the literature. Age, gender, and crash type were each controlled for by entering them into the initial blocks of the regression models. RESULTS: After accounting for the variance associated with age, gender, and crash type, only the overall number of offenses and the number of unlicensed driving offenses predicted a significant change in a drivers' likelihood of being at fault for the crash that killed them. Furthermore, drivers who were identified as having versatile (i.e., multiple offenses from different categories) or criminal-type offense profiles (i.e., offenses that were considered to approximate criminal offenses) were each significantly more likely to be at fault for a fatal crash. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: This study provided an important contribution by demonstrating how a more nuanced approach to understanding how a driver's traffic history might be used to identify drivers who are more at risk of being involved in a crash (i.e., for which they were at fault). The implications of these findings are discussed with recommendations and consideration for future research.

It's not a hard and fast rule: A qualitative investigation into factors influencing speeding among young drivers.

INTRODUCTION: Research demonstrates that young drivers exceed the posted speed limit more frequently than older drivers, and this demographic is also subsequently overrepresented in road crash statistics. This behavior remains a worldwide problem despite legal enforcement efforts that have proven to have limited efficiency and/or produce counterintuitive results. METHOD: Consequently, this study undertook a qualitative analysis in order to understand the factors that are perceived to both prevent and promote speeding behavior among young drivers, guided by self-determination theory (SDT). Focus groups were conducted with a total of 60 young drivers aged 17-25 years. An inductive thematic analysis approach was taken to analyze the data. RESULTS: Findings revealed the following factors influence the prevention of speeding: (1) legal consequences were perceived to deter low-level speeding, (2) fear of injury was believed to prevent high-level speeding, and (3) speed awareness monitors were considered to be an effective countermeasure. Meanwhile, factors perceived to contribute to violating speed restrictions included: (1) perceiving it is safe to do so, (2) a perceived norm to speed, (3) emotions, and (4) unintentional speeding. According to SDT, the factors that were perceived to prevent speeding promote externalized self-regulatory processes and are therefore limited by short-term behavior change. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The findings have important implications for designing countermeasures aimed at young drivers, not least illuminating the need to have education and media campaigns that target and build drivers' perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness in relation to speeding in order to promote longer term compliance.

Do they need to be tested to be deterred? Exploring the impact of exposure to roadside drug testing on drug driving.

INTRODUCTION: Maximizing the deterrent effects of Roadside Drug Testing (RDT) operations remains critical for improving road safety. While preliminary research has explored the impact of being tested at RDT sites, there is yet to be an investigation of different types of exposure (e.g., seeing an operation, being tested) and the subsequent relationship(s) with perceptions of certainty of apprehension and future intentions to offend. The overall objective of this research was to explore these relationships with a sample of drug takers. METHOD: A total of 803 Queensland motorists aged between 16 and 75 (M = 27.12, SD = 13.09) completed an online-based survey, and all reported consuming marijuana, MDMA, and/or methamphetamine at least once in the previous 12 months. A convenience sampling method was utilized (via Facebook). RESULTS: The drug driving proportion of the sample (58%) reported a total of 30,858 instances of drug driving, or 66 instances on average. Seeing RDT in the previous 12 months (26% of sample) was more common than being tested at RDT (7%). The results indicated that seeing RDT two or more times was related to increased certainty of apprehension (compared to those who had seen it only once or never), although the increase was relatively small. Correlational analyses suggest there were some positive (albeit weak relationships) between exposure to RDT (seen and tested) and past and future offending. However, only three significant predictors of future offending emerged: older age, lower perceptions of apprehension certainty, and greater use of marijuana. Practical Applications: The results illuminate the extent of the drug driving problem and the need for greater resourcing to increase the real threat of detection. While the effect of exposure to enforcement was small, it was positive, incremental and supportive of increased roadside police enforcement as well as further research to quantify such deterrent processes.

Crash proneness? Predictors of repeat crashes in older drivers.

INTRODUCTION: Older drivers are believed to be prone to crashes due to age-related deterioration of their driving abilities. Currently, little is known about the characteristics of repeat crashers and the factors that predict subsequent crashes among these older drivers. METHOD: A dataset containing the records of crash events that occurred between January 2014 and November 2019 was provided by the Department of Transport and Main Roads (DTMR) in Queensland, Australia. This dataset included 16,973 records of older drivers involved in a single crash and 222 cases in multiple crashes, comprising a total of 17,195 cases. Descriptive and inferential analyses were performed to understand the characteristics of repeat crashers. Survival analysis techniques were used to determine risk factors predictive of subsequent crashes. RESULTS: Nearly half (46%) of the repeat crashers were culpable for both of their crashes. Their average age was significantly older than those who were culpable for none or one of their crashes. For older male drivers, riding a motorcycle or driving a heavy vehicle were significant risk factors for having a subsequent crash. The risk for female at-fault drivers being involved in a subsequent crash was 4.53 times greater than those not at-fault. Older female drivers involved in crashes caused by slowing or stopping also presented a higher risk of being involved in subsequent crashes. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified risk factors for older drivers being involved in repeat crashes; distinctive gender differences in the risk for involvement in repeat crashes were found. Practical Applications: To reduce the likelihood of older drivers being involved in subsequent crashes, attention should be directed towards elders living in major cities, male motorcycle riders and heavy vehicle drivers, and at-fault female drivers.

Comparative judgements of crash risk and driving ability for speeding behaviours.

INTRODUCTION: Preliminary research has indicated that numerous drivers perceive their risk of traffic crash to be less than other drivers, while perceiving their driving ability to be better. This phenomenon is referred to as 'comparative optimism' (CO) and may prove to inhibit the safe adoption of driving behaviors and/or dilute perceptions of negative outcomes. The objective of this study was to investigate comparative judgments regarding crash risk and driving ability, and how these judgments relate to self-reported speeding. METHOD: There were 760 Queensland motorists comprised of 51.6% males and 48.2% females, aged 16-85 (M = 39.60). Participants completed either a paper or online version of a survey. Judgments of crash risk and driving ability were compared to two referents: the average same-age, same-sex driver, and the average same-age, same-sex V8 supercar champion. RESULTS: Drivers displayed greater optimism when comparing their crash risk and driving ability to the average same-age, same- sex driver (respectively, 72%, 72.4%), than when comparing to a V8 supercar champion (respectively, 60%, 32.9%). When comparing judgements of crash risk and driving ability to a similar driver, it appears that participants in the present study are just about as optimistic about their risk of crash (i.e. 72%) as they are optimistic about their driving ability (i.e. 74.2%).

Driving through a pandemic: A study of speeding and phone use while driving during COVID-19 restrictions.

OBJECTIVE: In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, restrictions were implemented, however, data indicates road crash rates have not decreased proportionately to the decline in traffic density. This study explored how speeding and phone use while driving (road behaviors associated with a high crash risk) changed as a result of COVID-19 restrictions in Queensland. METHODS: Two cross-sectional studies were conducted in Queensland, Australia to examine self-reported changes in speeding and phone use while driving before, during and after the easing of restrictions (while also considering exposure to the road and driving location). Study 1 (n = 351) was conducted between 12 May and 12 June 2020, when the majority of COVID-19 restrictions were enforced. Study 2 (n = 427) was conducted between 24 June and 12 August 2020, when restrictions were easing. RESULTS: The findings indicated, overall, self-reported speeding and phone use significantly decreased during restrictions (likely due to reduced travel), but not for those who continued to drive regularly. There was an additional, significant self-reported decrease in phone use while driving after restrictions were eased when compared to engagement during restrictions, which may (in part) be due to the simultaneous introduction of roadside mobile phone detection cameras. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the importance of visible deterrence and provide a glimpse of possible consequences if there is a more sustained reduction in policing presence on roads.

A unified deterrence-based model of legal and non-legal factors that influence young driver speeding behaviour.

Young driver speeding behaviour remains a large contributor to road trauma worldwide. In order to provide a more-in depth understanding of how to deter young drivers from this behaviour, this study developed and tested a model of the legal and non-legal factors that influence young driver's intentional speeding behaviour (exceeding the speed limit by more than 10 km/hr). A prospective survey design was conducted to measure the impact of perceptions of legal factors (including classical deterrence and reconceptualised deterrence variables) and non-legal factors (including the variables of fear of physical loss, material loss and perceived social sanctions, as well as the perception that it is safe to engage in the behaviour without being involved in a crash) at time 1, on engagement in speeding behaviour at time 2, which occurred 3 months later. A total of 200 participants aged 17-25 years completed both surveys (Mean age = 20.44 years). Using structural equation modelling, a unique model combining classical and extended deterrence theory, as well as prominent non-legal factors was created, and the variables were able to explain 41% of the variance in speeding behaviour. A high perceived severity of the punishment, experiencing direct punishment avoidance and perceiving that it is safe to speed were significant direct predictors. Meanwhile, there were also numerous significant partially mediated relationships found for both legal and non-legal variables. These findings provide important implications for both the application of deterrence-based theories in road safety and for improving countermeasures to deter young drivers more effectively from engagement in speeding.

The who, what and when of drug driving in Queensland: Analysing the results of roadside drug testing, 2015-2020.

Roadside Drug Testing (RDT) is the primary strategy utilised in Australia to detect and deter drug driving. RDT operations have been expanding and evolving in Queensland since their introduction in 2007, with the number of tests increasing by 5.63 times between 2009 and 2019. The objective of this paper was to explore trends and characteristics of the 60,551 positive results detected in Queensland's RDT program (from January 2015 to June 2020), which focuses on the detection of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA) and methamphetamine (MA). The analysis indicated that (over the entire testing period) MA was the most common drug detected in isolation (39.4%), followed by THC (34%) and the combination of MA and THC (21.9%). When considering detections with two or more drugs, MA was present in 64% of detections, THC in 59% and MDMA in 1.8%. THC was most commonly detected among younger drivers (e.g., aged 16 to 24), while MA was most commonly detected with drivers aged 25 and 59 years. Analysis of sociodemographic and contextual factors revealed that positive roadside tests were most commonly associated with males who had consumed methamphetamines, aged between 30 and 39 who were driving a car on a Friday or Saturday between 2:00 pm and 6:00 pm. The findings provide some indication as to the extent of drug driving within Queensland (and growing use of MA) and have clear implications for enforcement activities, not least, directing sufficient resources to address the burgeoning problem.

Self-regulation differences across learner and probationary drivers: The impact on risky driving behaviours.

Risky driving behaviours are a known contributor to young drivers' overrepresentation in road trauma, with self-regulation suggested as an important associated construct, but yet to be extensively explored. The aims of this study were to examine the utility of self-determination theory in explaining risky driving behaviours and to explore differences between young Learner and Provisional (P1)- licensed drivers in regard to their self-regulated safety orientation and engagement in risky driving behaviours. Learners (n = 1038) and P1(n = 589) drivers, aged 16-19 years, responded to a 91-item online survey, including self-regulated safety orientation items adapted from self-determination theory and inattentive and intentional risky driving behaviour items. Results showed that self-determination theory had good predictive power for the two types of risky driving behaviours for both licence groups. Learner and P1 drivers' engagement in risky behaviours was similar, however, the relative importance of self-regulated safety orientation elements to reduced engagement in these behaviours differed. Learners' engagement in intentional risky behaviours reflected greater perceived effort/importance and pressure/tension compared to P1 drivers. Greater effort/importance is an overarching indicator of internalised regulation concerning safe driving behaviours, which might be primed when first exposed to driving. However, greater perceived pressure/tension suggests that internalisation of self-regulatory processes is being suppressed during the Learner phase. This might stem from the required presence of driver trainers and supervisory drivers, as well as interactions with other road users. Whilst only tentative explanations in this first exploration, the findings suggest there is potential for greater efforts in Learner driver training and supervision to encompass the types of skills and learning that encourage the development of self-regulation to reduce risky driving behaviours during both the Learner and P1 stage. These findings contribute to the limited research regarding self-regulation by young novice drivers and informs a better understanding of the psychological influences of engagement in risky driving behaviours, including the first such examination among early independent licensed drivers.

Does seeing it make a difference? The self-reported deterrent impact of random breath testing.

INTRODUCTION: Random Breath Testing (RBT) remains a primary method to both deter and apprehend drink drivers, yet a large proportion of road fatalities continue to be caused by the offense. Outstanding questions remain regarding how much exposure to RBT operations is needed to influence deterrence-based perceptions and subsequent offending. METHOD: Given this, licensed motorists (N = 961) in Queensland were recruited to complete a questionnaire either in the community (N = 741) or on the side of the road after just being breath tested (N = 243). Survey items measured different types of exposure to RBT operations (e.g., "seen" vs. "being tested") and subsequent perceptions of apprehension as well as self-reported drink driving behaviors. RESULTS: The key findings that emerged were: motorists were regularly exposed to RBT operations (both viewing and being tested), such exposure was not significantly correlated with perceptions of apprehension certainty, and a sizable proportion reported engaging in drink driving behaviors (e.g., approx. 25%), although roadside participants naturally reported a lower percentage of offending behaviors. Importantly, it was revealed that current "observations" of RBT was sufficient, but not actual levels of active testing (which needed to be doubled). Nevertheless, higher levels of exposure to RBT operations was found to be predictive of a lack of intention to drink and drive again in the future. CONCLUSIONS: This paper suggests that mere exposure to enforcement may not create the intended rule compliance, and that the frequency of exposure is also essential for the roadside.

Drink driving during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, static roadside random breath testing (RBT) was temporarily suspended between 16 March and 12 June 2020 in Queensland, Australia. In addition to restrictions on travel and social interactions, this provided a unique opportunity to examine changes in drink-driving behaviour during and after a reduction in RBT operations in the community. Three cross-sectional surveys were disseminated at different time points to examine these differences. Over three surveys, 1193 Queensland licensed drivers aged 18 years and over (M = 36.9, SD = 16.7) responded. While overall drink driving decreased over the three survey periods, there were groups where drink driving, or the intention to drink drive, increased over the same period. The overall decrease could be expected as a result of community restrictions on socialising and travel behaviours. In each of the surveys, prior engagement in drink driving was the strongest predictor of intention to increase future engagement and actual engagement. These drink drivers were more likely aged 18-24 years, male, and held restricted licensure. Notably, a small number of participants who reported drink driving, and/or intention to drink drive during the survey period, reported not having engaged in this behaviour previously. This suggested an increased likelihood of drink drivers experiencing punishment avoidance which may promote future engagement in this behaviour. Despite a decrease in social opportunities to drink, and the suspension of highly visible roadside breath testing sites, drink driving persisted. This research highlights the importance of RBTs as a general deterrent for drink driving.

Are perceptions of penalties stable across time? The problem of causal ordering in deterrence applied to road safety.

This study addressed the causal ordering problem in deterrence research by examining the perceptual stability of deterrence variables over time and comparing the results via cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys. This research extends upon scant previous research by including three key classical deterrence variables (i.e., the perceived certainty of apprehension and the perceived severity and swiftness of punishment), as well as Homel's (1988) extra-legal deterrence-related variables of the fear of physical loss, material loss and social sanctions. A longitudinal survey design was utilised over a three month-time period (N = 200, Mage = 20.38 years, 71 males) that examined the stability of the deterrence-related variables for three road rule violations, consisting of 1) exceeding the speed limit by more than 10 km/hr, 2) reading a message on a phone while driving and 3) using the social media platform of Snapchat while driving. Overall, fluctuations were found in all the deterrence-related variables (both legal and extra-legal sanctions), with the largest difference being for the perceptions of the certainty of apprehension. Consequently, it can be suggested that: (a) longitudinal surveys are more reliable when measuring the impact of deterrence perceptions on engagement in offending behaviour and (b) the problem of causal ordering regarding utilising cross-sectional surveys is further illuminated. The results suggest that deterrence is a dynamic process, constantly changing based upon individual experiences, which reinforces the need for continued enforcement efforts (both legal and non-legal), within the road safety arena to maximise rule compliance.

Alcohol and illicit substances associated with fatal crashes in Queensland: An examination of the 2011 to 2015 Coroner's findings.

PROBLEM: The problem of impaired driving is well documented in the literature but is heavily dependent upon self-report studies and/or databases that do not include in-depth information about the contributing origins of fatalities. AIM: This study aimed to conduct an in-depth analysis of Coroner's findings for all fatally injured drivers in the state of Queensland in order to explore the prevalence of alcohol and different types of illicit substances (including drug combinations) in fatal crash reports. METHOD: A total of 701 Coroner's reports related to drivers or controllers of vehicles involved in traffic related fatalities for the period of 2011-2015 were analysed, revealing 306 controllers (43.6%) were detected with either alcohol or illegal drugs (e.g., methylamphetamine, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cocaine or MDMA) RESULTS: Alcohol was the most commonly detected substance identified with 223 cases (72.9% of the drug and alcohol sample). Illicit drug detections totalled 147 cases (48% of the drug and alcohol sample) with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol the most commonly detected illicit substance (109 cases; 35.6% of the drug and alcohol sample) followed by methylamphetamine (total of 63 cases; 20.6% of the drug and alcohol sample). An important theme to emerge was the prevalence of polysubstance use among fatally injured drivers, not just for alcohol and one drug type, but also multiple drug combinations. Fatality trends revealed a decrease in both non-substance and alcohol-related fatalities across the study period. However, road fatalities where an illicit substance was detected increased by approximately 57%. Males were overrepresented as a proportion of total fatalities (82.4%) and there were no significant sex or age differences regarding illicit substance related deaths. Drivers of passenger vehicles were most commonly identified in the data (66.2%), but motorcycle operators were disproportionately represented (28.1% of the total controller sample compared to 4% of vehicle registrations in Queensland) CONCLUSION: This case study analysis of fatal crashes not only confirms the ongoing problem of alcohol and driving, but also illuminates the emerging (and escalating) issue of illicit substances detected in fatally injured drivers.

Past behaviours and future intentions: An examination of perceptual deterrence and alcohol consumption upon a range of drink driving events.

INTRODUCTION: The threat of application of legal sanctions remains the prominent approach to reduce the prevalence of drink driving in a vast array of motoring jurisdictions. However, ongoing questions remain regarding: (a) the extent that such mechanisms impact upon offending behaviours, (b) the deleterious effect alcohol consumption has on decisions to drink and drive and (c) how best to operationalise (and measure) the concept of drink driving to enhance the accurate measurement of the dependent variable. METHOD: This paper reports on an examination of 773 Queensland motorists' (across nine local government areas) perceptions of both legal and non-legal drink driving sanctions (as well as alcohol consumption) in order to gauge the deterrent impact upon a range of measures of drink driving: the driver thinking they are over the limit, the driver knowing they are over the limit, attempts to evade random breath testing, and intentions to re-offend. The sample completed an online or paper version of the questionnaire. RESULTS: The majority of participants reported "never" engaging in "possible" (74.5 %) or "acknowledged" (83.4 %) drink driving events, although a considerable proportion of the sample reported engaging in "possible" (25.5 %) or "acknowledged" (16.6 %) drink driving and attempting to evade RBT (18 %) events, as well as possible intentions to drink and drive in the future (22 %). Males were more likely to report such events. Perceptions of both legal sanctions (certainty, severity and swiftness) as well as non-legal sanctions (fear of social, internal or physical harm) were relatively high and consistent with previous research. Interestingly, non-legal sanctions were reported as stronger deterrents than legal sanctions. However, multivariate analysis revealed that legal deterrents had limited utility predicting offending behaviours, but rather, demographic characteristics (e.g., younger motorists, males) as well as risky drinking behaviour were better predictors. In regards to intentions to offend, a past conviction for drink driving was also a predictor of re-offending. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: These results highlight the ongoing challenges of addressing the problem of drink driving and that some motorists: (a) have entrenched behaviour and/or (b) make the decision to drink and drive before they are under the influence of alcohol.

Drink driving engagement in women: An exploration of context, hazardous alcohol use, and behaviour.

BACKGROUND: While drink driving continues to be significantly more common among male drivers, there is evidence from many countries that shows a growing trend of women engaging in this risky behaviour. The aims of the current study were threefold: (i) determine to what extent a sample of women drivers reported engaging in drink driving behaviour by expanding the construct into a range of definitions, (ii) determine if there were significant differences in self-reported engagement in drink driving behaviours in accordance with hazardous drinking behaviour, and (iii) identify which situational or personal factors would increase women drivers' likelihood to engage in drink driving through presenting a range of scenarios. METHOD: Data were collected using an on-line, purpose-designed survey and promoted to reach women aged 17 years and older, living in Queensland, Australia. In addition to questions relating to demographic characteristics, participants completed items relating to engagement in seven drink driving related behaviours in the previous 12-month period, hazardous drinking as measured by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, and likelihood of driving when unsure if over the legal limit for licence type across a range of scenarios manipulating different situational factors. A total of 644 valid responses were received in the two-week period the study was advertised. RESULTS: The results demonstrate women's self-reported engagement in drink driving behaviour ranged from 12.6% (driving when they believed they were over the legal limit) to over 50.0% (driving when unsure if over the legal limit the morning after drinking alcohol) and was significantly more likely among those who reported hazardous levels of alcohol use. Circumstances in which women reported they would drive when unsure if over the legal BAC limit were when they were a few blocks from home, if they subjectively felt they were not too intoxicated, or if they needed their car to get somewhere the next morning. CONCLUSION: Examining drink driving behaviour by way of responses to nuanced definitions provided valuable insight into self-reported engagement in the behaviour and highlights the usefulness of multi-measure dependent variables in order to illuminate a more accurate acknowledgement into both the type (and extent) of drink driving behaviours.

"I Snapchat and Drive!" A mixed methods approach examining snapchat use while driving and deterrent perceptions among young adults.

This research utilised a qualitative and quantitative study to examine a sample of young drivers' perceptions of deterrent forces, both legal and non-legal, for the behaviour of phone use while driving. First, focus groups were conducted with 60 drivers between the ages of 17 and 25 years who resided in Queensland, Australia. This qualitative study utilised an inductive approach to elicit participants' perceptions without omitting important ideas. Legal sanctions were associated with low perceptions of enforcement certainty. Meanwhile, the only non-legal sanction to emerge was the concept of "safety"; many participants were deterred from using their phone while driving for fear of injury or death to themselves or others. The types of social media most likely to be engaged in were explored and sending videos or photos via the application Snapchat emerged as the most common social media application used among the sample. Consequently, the subsequent quantitative study focused on deterrent forces associated with Snapchat use while driving. A survey was utilised with a separate sample of young drivers aged 17-25 years (n = 503). The impact of the threat of legal sanctions on Snapchat use while driving was examined through classical deterrence theory and Stafford and Warr's (1993) reconceptualised deterrence theory. The non-legal factor of perceived safety was also included in the quantitative study. None of the classical deterrence variables (e.g., certainty, severity and swiftness) reached significance while all the reconceptualised deterrence variables (e.g., direct and indirect punishment and punishment avoidance), as well as perceived safety, were significant predictors of Snapchat use while driving. It is suggested that perceptions of certainty of apprehension need to be increased for phone use while driving. The findings show the current impact of deterrent initiatives for phone use while driving as well as provide the first examination of deterrents for the specific mobile phone behaviour of Snapchat use while driving.

Age, gender and deterrability: Are younger male drivers more likely to discount the future?

Utilizing the Classical Deterrence theory and Stafford and Warr's (1993) reconceptualized model of deterrence, the current study examined whether age, gender, and discounting the future tendencies influence perceptions of being apprehended for speeding offences. Licensed motorists (N=700; 57% female) in Queensland (Australia) were recruited to complete a self-report questionnaire that measured perceptual deterrence, speeding related behaviors and discounting the future tendencies. Data were analyzed utilizing descriptive, bivariate and multivariate regressions. Significant (albeit weak) positive correlations were found between age and perceptions of apprehension certainty. Males were significantly more likely to report higher incidences of speeding (including while avoiding detection) compared to females. In contrast, females were more likely to perceive high levels of apprehension certainty and consider impending penalties to be more severe. At a multivariate level, discounting the future tendencies (in addition to being male, reporting lower levels of perceptual severity and swiftness, and more instances of punishment avoidance) were predictive of lower perceptual certainty levels. This study is one of the first to reveal that being male and having a tendency to discount the consequences of the future may directly influence drivers' perceptual deterrence levels.

Prevalence and characteristics of road traffic injuries among young drivers in Oman, 2009-2011.

OBJECTIVES: Studies from different parts of the world have indicated that the impact of road traffic incidents disproportionally affects young adults. Few known studies have been forthcoming from Arabian Gulf countries. Within Oman, a high proportion of the population is under the age of 20. Coupled with the drastic increase in motorization in recent years, there is a need to understand the state of road safety among young people in Oman. The current research aimed to explore the prevalence and characteristics of road traffic injuries among young drivers aged 17-25 years. METHODS: Crash data from 2009 to 2011 were extracted from the Directorate General of Traffic, Royal Oman Police (ROP) database in Oman. The data were analyzed to explore the impact of road crashes on young people (17-25 years), the characteristics of young driver crashes, and how these differ from older drivers and to identify key predictors of fatalities in young driver crashes. RESULTS: Overall, young people were overrepresented in injuries and fatalities within the sample time period. Though it is true that many young people in crashes were driving at the time, it was also evident that young people were often victims in a crash caused by someone else. Thus, to reduce the impact of road crashes on young people, there is a need to generally address road safety within Oman. When young drivers were involved in crashes they were predominantly male. The types of crashes these drivers have can be broadly attributed to risk taking and inexperience. Speeding and nighttime driving were the key risk factors for fatalities. CONCLUSION: The results highlight the need to address young driver safety in Oman. From these findings, the introduction of a graduated driver licensing system with nighttime driving restrictions could significantly improve young driver safety.