Threat directionality modulates defensive reactions in humans: cardiac and electrodermal responses.

Features of threatening cues and the associated context influence the perceived imminence of threat and the defensive responses evoked. To provide additional knowledge about how the directionality of a threat (i.e. directed-towards or away from the viewer) might impact defensive responses in humans, participants were shown pictures of a man carrying a gun (threat) or nonlethal object (neutral) directed-away from or towards the participant. Cardiac and electrodermal responses were collected. Compared to neutral images, threatening images depicting a gun directed-towards the participant induced sustained bradycardia and an increased electrodermal response, interpreted as immobility under attack. This defensive immobility reaction is evoked by high perceived threat and inescapable situations and indicates intense action preparation. Pictures of guns directed-away from the participant induced shorter bradycardia and no significant modulation of the electrodermal response compared to neutral pictures, which might be consistent with the perception of a less threatening situation. The results show that the directionality of threat stimuli is a key factor that prompts different patterns of defensive responses.

Ultra-Processed Foods Elicit Higher Approach Motivation Than Unprocessed and Minimally Processed Foods.

Background: Ultra-processed foods (UPF) are becoming extensively available in the food environments. UPF are industrial formulations that are designed to maximize palatability and consumption through a combination of calorie-dense ingredients and chemical additives. UPFs are also aggressively marketed, which may make them more attractive than unprocessed/minimally processed foods (UMPF). Since consumers' purchase decisions are guided by food-evoked emotions, we aimed to provide evidence that UPF visual cues trigger higher emotional responses and approach motivation than UMPF visual cues, with potential impacts on individuals' intention to consume the UPF over the UMPF. Methods: Participants (n = 174; 144 women; mean age = 20.7 years; standard deviation = 4.35) performed two tasks. In the first task, 16 pictures of foods (8 UPF and 8 UMPF), and 74 pictures from other affective categories, were presented. After viewing each picture, the participants rated it along two basic dimensions of emotion through the Self-Assessment Manikin scale: pleasantness and arousal. In the second task, the participants viewed the same food pictures, and they rated their intention to consume the foods depicted in the pictures. Each picture was plotted in terms of its mean pleasantness and arousal ratings in a Cartesian plane, which resulted in an affective space. Results: Pictures of UPF and UMPF were positioned in the upper arm of the boomerang-shaped affective space that represents approach motivation. Pictures containing UPF triggered higher approach motivation and intention to consume than pictures containing UMPF. We also found a stronger association between emotional responses and intention to consume UPF relative to UMPF. Conclusion: These results shed new light on the role of ultra-processed foods evoked emotions that contribute to less healthy and sustainable food environments.

Visuo-Motor Affective Interplay: Bonding Scenes Promote Implicit Motor Pre-dispositions Associated With Social Grooming-A Pilot Study.

Proximity and interpersonal contact are prominent components of social connection. Giving affective touch to others is fundamental for human bonding. This brief report presents preliminary results from a pilot study. It explores if exposure to bonding scenes impacts the activity of specific muscles related to physical interaction. Fingers flexion is a very important component when performing most actions of affectionate contact. We explored the visuo-motor affective interplay by priming participants with bonding scenes and assessing the electromyographic activity of the fingers flexor muscle, in the absence of any overt movements. Photographs of dyads in social interaction and of the same dyads not interacting were employed. We examined the effects upon the electromyographical activity: (i) during the passive exposure to pictures, and (ii) during picture offset and when expecting the signal to perform a fingers flexion task. Interacting dyads compared to matched non-interacting dyads increased electromyographic activity of the fingers flexor muscle in both contexts. Specific capture of visual bonding cues at the level of visual cortex had been described in the literature. Here we showed that the neural processing of visual bonding cues reaches the fingers flexor muscle. Besides, previous visualization of bonding cues enhanced background electromyographic activity during motor preparation to perform the fingers flexion task, which might reflect a sustained leakage of central motor activity downstream leading to increase in firing of the respective motor neurons. These data suggest, at the effector level, an implicit visuo-motor connection in which social interaction cues evoke intrinsic dispositions toward affectionate social behavior.

Tonic Immobility is Associated with PTSD Symptoms in Traumatized Adolescents.

PURPOSE: Growing evidence suggests that peritraumatic tonic immobility, an involuntary defensive response that involves extreme physical immobility and the perceived inability to escape, is a significant predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology. However, this issue has not been specifically addressed in adolescents. Here, we investigated whether tonic immobility response experienced during the worst childhood or adolescent trauma is associated with PTSD symptom severity in a non-clinical student sample. METHODS: The sample was composed of students in 9th grade who were attending public and private schools. Symptoms of post-traumatic stress and tonic immobility were assessed using questionnaires. We performed bivariate and multivariate negative binomial regressions to examine whether tonic immobility was associated with PTSD symptomatology after controlling for confounders (peritraumatic dissociation, peritraumatic panic reactions, gender, age and time since trauma). RESULTS: We found an association between tonic immobility and PTSD symptom severity, even after controlling for confounders. Therefore, tonic immobility is associated with PTSD symptoms in trauma-exposed adolescents. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight tonic immobility as a possible risk factor that could be used to provide direction for more targeted trauma interventions for individuals, particularly those at risk for developing PTSD. Therefore, it contributes to preventing and reducing the psychiatric burden in adolescence and later in life.

A Systematic Review of Electrophysiological Findings in Binge-Purge Eating Disorders: A Window Into Brain Dynamics.

Binge-purge eating disorders (BP-ED), such as bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder, may share some neurobiological features. Electroencephalography (EEG) is a non-invasive measurement modality that may aid in research and diagnosis of BP-ED. We conducted a systematic review of the literature on EEG findings in BP-ED, seeking to summarize and analyze the current evidence, as well as identify shortcomings and gaps to inform new perspectives for future studies. Following PRISMA Statement recommendations, the PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases were searched using terms related to "electroencephalography" and "binge-purge" eating disorders. Of 555 articles retrieved, 15 met predefined inclusion criteria and were included for full-text analysis. Eleven studies investigated EEG by means of event-related potentials (ERP) in BP-ED individuals: 7 using eating disorder-related stimuli (i.e., food, body image) and 4 using non-eating disorder-related stimuli (i.e., facial expressions or auditory clicks). These studies found significant differences in the N200, P200, P300, and LPP components in BP-ED participants compared to controls, indicating that this population exhibits impairments in selective attention, attentional allocation/processing, and allocation of motivational or emotion-based attention. Five studies investigated EEG using frequency analysis; reporting significant differences in beta activity in fronto-temporal and occipito-temporo-parietal areas in BP-ED individuals compared to controls, revealing a dysfunctional brain network. However, the small number of studies, the heterogeneity of samples, study paradigms, stimulus types, and the lack of an adequate assessment of neuropsychological parameters are some limitations of the current literature. Although some EEG data are promising and consistent with neuroimaging and neuropsychological findings in individuals with BP-ED, future studies need to overcome current methodological shortcomings.

Long-Term Influence of Incidental Emotions on the Emotional Judgment of Neutral Faces.

Background: Evidence indicates that the processing of facial stimuli may be influenced by incidental factors, and these influences are particularly powerful when facial expressions are ambiguous, such as neutral faces. However, limited research investigated whether emotional contextual information presented in a preceding and unrelated experiment could be pervasively carried over to another experiment to modulate neutral face processing. Objective: The present study aims to investigate whether an emotional text presented in a first experiment could generate negative emotion toward neutral faces in a second experiment unrelated to the previous experiment. Methods: Ninety-nine students (all women) were randomly assigned to read and evaluate a negative text (negative context) or a neutral text (neutral text) in the first experiment. In the subsequent second experiment, the participants performed the following two tasks: (1) an attentional task in which neutral faces were presented as distractors and (2) a task involving the emotional judgment of neutral faces. Results: The results show that compared to the neutral context, in the negative context, the participants rated more faces as negative. No significant result was found in the attentional task. Conclusion: Our study demonstrates that incidental emotional information available in a previous experiment can increase participants' propensity to interpret neutral faces as more negative when emotional information is directly evaluated. Therefore, the present study adds important evidence to the literature suggesting that our behavior and actions are modulated by previous information in an incidental or low perceived way similar to what occurs in everyday life, thereby modulating our judgments and emotions.

Hidden wounds of violence: Abnormal motor oscillatory brain activity is related to posttraumatic stress symptoms.

Victims of urban violence are at risk of developing Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), one of the most debilitating consequences of violence. Considering that PTSD may be associated with inefficient selection of defensive responses, it is important to understand the relation between motor processing and PTSD. The present study aims to investigate the extent to which the severity of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) is related to motor preparation against visual threat cues in victims of urban violence. Participants performed a choice reaction time task while ignoring a picture that could be threating or neutral. The EEG indices extracted were the motor-related amplitude asymmetry (MRAA) in the alpha frequency range, and the lateralized readiness potential (LRP). We observed a linear relation between longer LRP latency and a slower reaction time, selectively during threat processing (compared to neutral) in low PTSS, but not in high PTSS participants. Alpha MRAA suppression and the PTSS were also linearly related: the smaller the alpha MRAA suppression in the threat condition relative to neutral, the greater the PTSS. These results provide evidence that threatening cues affect motor processing that is modulated by the severity of PTSS in victims of urban violence.

Controlling Unpleasant Thoughts: Adjustments of Cognitive Control Based on Previous-Trial Load in a Working Memory Task.

Dynamic cognitive control adjustments are important for integrating thoughts and actions that take place during dynamic changes of environmental demands and support goal-directed behavior. We investigated, in a working memory (WM) paradigm, whether dynamic adjustments in cognitive control based on previous trial load influence the neural response to neutral or unpleasant distracters. We also investigated whether individual self-reported abilities in controlling thoughts influence this effect. Participants performed a WM change detection task with low or high WM-related cognitive demands. An unpleasant or a neutral distractive image was presented at the beginning of each trial, prior to the WM task. We tested for control adjustments that were associated with the load level of the preceding trial task (N-1) on the neural response to the subsequent distractive image. We found an effect of the prior WM task load on a parieto-occipital waveform event-related potential (ERP) that appeared between 200 and 300 ms after the neutral distracter onset. This effect was not observed for the unpleasant distracter. Individual ability for controlling thoughts may influence the effect of cognitive control adjustments on distracter processing during the unpleasant condition. These findings provide evidence that: (1) dynamic cognitive control adjustments are impaired by unpleasant distracters; and (2) the ability to control unpleasant thoughts is linked to individual differences in flexible cognitive control adjustments and shielding of WM representations from unpleasant distracters.

"Keep That in Mind!" The Role of Positive Affect in Working Memory for Maintaining Goal-Relevant Information.

Some studies have demonstrated a beneficial role of Positive Affect on working memory (WM) by either applying protocols of mood induction or assessing naturally occurring state Positive Affect. However, there are no studies directly linking Positive Affect as a stable personality-like trait with WM. We aimed to address this potential relationship using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule scale and contra-lateral delay activity (CDA) as measures of trait Positive Affect and WM Capacity, respectively. We also sought to investigate the impact of a neutral or unpleasant emotional state on this relationship. Participants performed a change detection task, while a neutral or an unpleasant emotional state was induced. Our results showed a positive robust correlation between trait Positive Affect and WM Capacity for both neutral and unpleasant emotional states, as revealed by the neuroelectrophysiological gold-standard measure of WM, namely, CDA. These data suggest a tangible role of trait Positive Affect in the cognitive ability of maintaining goal-relevant information in WM, such that even a highly disruptive state is not sufficient to corrupt this relationship.

Appetitive drives for ultra-processed food products and the ability of text warnings to counteract consumption predispositions.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to (i) assess the appetitive drives evoked by the visual cues of ultra-processed food and drink products and (ii) investigate whether text warnings reduce appetitive drives and consumers' reported intentions to eat or drink ultra-processed products. DESIGN: In Study I, a well-established psychometric tool was applied to estimate the appetitive drives associated with ultra-processed products using sixty-four image representations. Sixteen product types with four exemplars of a given product were included. Pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) served as controls. The two exemplars of each product type rated as more appetitive were selected for investigation in the second study. Study II assessed the impact of textual warnings on the appetitive drive towards these thirty-two exemplars. Each participant was exposed to two picture exemplars of the same product type preceded by a text warning or a control text. After viewing each displayed picture, the participants reported their emotional reactions and their intention to consume the product. SETTING: Controlled classroom experiments SUBJECTS: Undergraduate students (Study I: n 215, 135 women; Study II: n 98, 52 women). RESULTS: In Study I, the pictures of ultra-processed products prompted an appetitive motivation associated with the products' nutritional content. In Study II, text warnings were effective in reducing the intention to consume and the appetitive drive evoked by ultra-processed products. CONCLUSIONS: This research provides initial evidence favouring the use of text warnings as a public policy tool to curb the powerful influence of highly appetitive ultra-processed food cues.

An unpleasant emotional state reduces working memory capacity: electrophysiological evidence.

Emotional states can guide the actions and decisions we make in our everyday life through their influence on cognitive processes such as working memory (WM). We investigated the long-lasting interference that an unpleasant emotional state had on goal-relevant WM representations from an electrophysiological perspective. Participants performed a change detection task that was preceded by the presentation of unpleasant or neutral task-irrelevant pictures in a blocked fashion. We focused on the contralateral delay activity (CDA), an event-related potential that is sensitive to the number of task-relevant items stored in WM. We found that the asymptotic limit for the CDA amplitude was lower during the unpleasant emotional state than during the neutral one; that is, an emotional state was capable of reducing how many task-relevant items the participants could hold in WM. Furthermore, both the individuals who experienced more intrusive thoughts and those who were dispositionally anxious were more susceptible to the influence of the emotional state. We provide evidence that an unpleasant emotional state diminished visual WM for task-relevant items, particularly in susceptible individuals. These results open new avenues to uncover the emotional-cognitive processing that underlies maladaptive WM representations and the role of such processing in the development of mental illness.

Preparing to caress: a neural signature of social bonding.

It is assumed that social bonds in humans have consequences for virtually all aspects of behavior. Social touch-based contact, particularly hand caressing, plays an important role in social bonding. Pre-programmed neural circuits likely support actions (or predispositions to act) toward caressing contacts. We searched for pre-set motor substrates toward caressing by exposing volunteers to bonding cues and having them gently stroke a very soft cloth, a caress-like movement. The bonding cues were pictures with interacting dyads and the control pictures presented non-interacting dyads. We focused on the readiness potential, an electroencephalographic marker of motor preparation that precedes movement execution. The amplitude of the readiness potential preceding the grasping of pleasant emotional-laden stimuli was previously shown to be reduced compared with neutral ones. Fingers flexor electromyography measured action output. The rationale here is that stroking the soft cloth when previously exposed to bonding cues, a compatible context, would result in smaller amplitudes of readiness potentials, as compared to the context with no such cues. Exposure to the bonding pictures increased subjective feelings of sociability and decreased feelings of isolation. Participants who more frequently engage in mutual caress/groom a "significant other" in daily life initiated the motor preparation earlier, reinforcing the caress-like nature of the task. As hypothesized, readiness potentials preceding the caressing of the soft cloth were significantly reduced under exposure to bonding as compared to control pictures. Furthermore, an increased fingers flexor electromyographic activity was identified under exposure to the former as compared to the latter pictures. The facilitatory effects are likely due to the recruitment of pre-set cortical motor repertoires related to caress-like movements, emphasizing the distinctiveness of neural signatures for caress-like movements.

Brain reactivity to unpleasant stimuli is associated with severity of posttraumatic stress symptoms.

Despite the impressive progress in the biological research of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), little is known about the neurobiological correlates of emotional reactions in healthy people with posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). The present study investigated whether PTSS are related to the electrocortical processing of unpleasant pictures in a sample of undergraduate students. Participants were instructed to judge whether images were unpleasant or neutral while an EEG was taken. The late positive potential (LPP) to unpleasant relative to neutral was more positive for people with high PTSS than with low PTSS. Additionally, a temporospatial principal components analysis (PCA) for the whole sample identified positivities that were directly correlated with PTSS. These results provide evidence that brain reactivity to unpleasant cues would predict PTSS intensity and thus be a biomarker of PTSS severity.

Implicit motivational impact of pictorial health warning on cigarette packs.

OBJECTIVE: The use of pictorial warning labels on cigarette packages is one of the provisions included in the first ever global health treaty by the World Health Organization against the tobacco epidemic. There is substantial evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of graphic health warning labels on intention to quit, thoughts about health risks and engaging in cessation behaviors. However, studies that address the implicit emotional drives evoked by such warnings are still underexplored. Here, we provide experimental data for the use of pictorial health warnings as a reliable strategy for tobacco control. METHODS: Experiment 1 pre-tested nineteen prototypes of pictorial warnings to screen for their emotional impact. Participants (n = 338) were young adults balanced in gender, smoking status and education. Experiment 2 (n = 63) tested pictorial warnings (ten) that were stamped on packs. We employed an innovative set-up to investigate the impact of the warnings on the ordinary attitude of packs' manipulation, and quantified judgments of warnings' emotional strength and efficacy against smoking. FINDINGS: Experiment 1 revealed that women judged the warning prototypes as more aversive than men, and smokers judged them more aversive than non-smokers. Participants with lower education judged the prototypes more aversive than participants with higher education. Experiment 2 showed that stamped warnings antagonized the appeal of the brands by imposing a cost to manipulate the cigarette packs, especially for smokers. Additionally, participants' judgments revealed that the more aversive a warning, the more it is perceived as effective against smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Health warning labels are one of the key components of the integrated approach to control the global tobacco epidemic. The evidence presented in this study adds to the understanding of how implicit responses to pictorial warnings may contribute to behavioral change.

Emotion and attention interaction: a trade-off between stimuli relevance, motivation and individual differences.

Mounting evidence suggests that the neural processing of emotional stimuli is prioritized. However, whether the processing of emotional stimuli is dependent on attention remains debatable. Several studies have investigated this issue by testing the capacity of emotional distracters to divert processing resources from an attentional main task. The attentional load theory postulates that the perceptual load of the main task determines the selective processing of the distracter. Although we agree with this theory, we also suggest that other factors could be important in determining the association between the load of the main task and distracter processing, namely, (1) the relevance of the to-be ignored stimuli and (2) the engagement in the main task due to motivation. We postulate that these factors function as opposite forces to influence distracter processing. In addition, we propose that this trade-off is modulated by individual differences. In summary, we suggest that the relationship between emotion and attention is flexible rather than rigid and depends on several factors. Considering this perspective may help us to understand the divergence in the results described by several studies in this field.

Box for interaction with objects (BIO): a new device to synchronize the presentation of objects with electrophysiological recordings.

Brain event-related potentials are a useful tool for investigating visual processing and action planning. This technique requires extremely accurate synchronization of stimulus delivery with recordings. The precision of the onset time of visual stimulus delivery is a major challenge when attempting to use real, three-dimensional objects as stimuli. Here, we present an innovative device, the "box for interaction with objects" (BIO), that is designed to synchronize the presentation of objects with electroencephalographic (EEG) recordings. To reach the required resolution of stimulus-onset timing, the BIO system features an interface with reflective glass and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). When the LEDs inside the BIO are turned on, the object inside becomes visible, and a synchronizing pulse is sent to the recording systems. The BIO was tested in a motivational study that focused on visual and motor event-related potentials. EEG signals were recorded during the presentation of an emotion-laden object that could be grasped and brought close to the participant's chest. BIO successfully synchronized the appearance of a three-dimensional object with EEG recordings, which would allow for an analysis of visual and motor event-related potentials in the same experiment. The BIO device, through a high-quality psychophysiological approach, offers a new perspective for the study of the motivational factors that drive actions toward relevant stimuli.

Is there tonic immobility in humans? Biological evidence from victims of traumatic stress.

Tonic immobility, characterized by profound motor inhibition, is elicited under inescapable threat in many species. To fully support the existence of tonic immobility in humans, our aim was to elicit this reaction in a laboratory setting and measure it objectively. To mimic exposure to life-threatening events in the lab, trauma-exposed participants with PTSD (n=18) and without PTSD (n=15) listened to the script of their autobiographical trauma. Posturography and electrocardiography were employed. Reports of script-induced immobility were associated with restricted area of body sway and were correlated with accelerated heart rate and diminished heart rate variability, implying that tonic immobility is preserved in humans as an involuntary defensive strategy. Immobility reports seemed more evident in PTSD, suggesting that, in some patients, tonic immobility may be elicited during re-experiencing episodes in daily life. This study provided a measure of tonic immobility, a peritraumatic reaction for which cumulative clinical evidence had linked to the severity of PTSD.

Stroop matching task: role of feature selection and temporal modulation.

We conducted an event-related potential (ERP) study to investigate the electrocortical dynamics of attentional feature-based processing in the Stroop matching task. Participants in the study (n = 37) compared the ink color of a colored word with the meaning of a color-word in white ink. The two task stimuli were presented simultaneously or with SOAs (Stimulus Onset Asynchrony) of 400 and 1,200 ms. The Stroop matching effect was maximal during SOA-0, was reduced at SOA-400, and was inverted at SOA-1200. We focused the ERP analysis on the N1 component. Paralleling the behavioral results, the N1 amplitude was greater for congruent stimuli than incongruent stimuli during SOA-0. This difference was attenuated at SOA-400, and at SOA-1200, an inverse pattern was observed. The results provide evidence that early selection processing participated in the Stroop matching task phenomenon and also suggest that the temporal modulation of early attention is a function of task characteristics such as SOA.

Dynamics of a Stroop matching task: effect of alcohol and reversal with training

Using a Stroop matching task, we evaluated how alcohol affects the time needed to overcome Stroop conflict and whether practice might reverse the effect of alcohol. Participants (n = 16) performed two sessions in which they had to compare the color of a color-word with the meaning of a color-word in neutral color. The two task stimuli were presented simultaneously or with a Stimulus Onset Asynchrony (SOA) of 200, 500, or 800 ms. For half of the subjects, alcohol was administered in the first session, and for the other half, alcohol was administered in the second session. The results showed that the Stroop effect was significant at the 0 and 200 ms intervals in the sober subjects. Moreover, in untrained intoxicated individuals, interference endured until the 500 ms interval, a result that was abolished in trained intoxicated subjects. In conclusion, alcohol increased the time needed for Stroop matching task conflict resolution. However, this deleterious effect was minimized by a previous practice session.(AU)

The neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: dysfunction in the prefrontal-amygdala circuit?

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that can develop following exposure to a traumatic event, including terrifying or life-threatening situations such as sexual assault or natural disasters. The disorder is characterized by a reaction of intense fear, helplessness, or horror when the individual experiences, testifies about, or is faced with one or more events that involve death, severe wounds, or a threat to one's own or another's physical integrity. One of the most important symptoms of PTSD is the revival of the traumatic event, which has been interpreted as an inability to downregulate negative emotions. Neuroimaging studies that probed the ability to regulate emotions in healthy volunteers have found a pattern characterized by activation of the prefrontal cortex associated with a reduction in amygdala activity. This suggests an inhibitory prefrontal cortex-amygdala circuit that underlies emotional regulation. The hypothesis that increased amygdala activation associated with PTSD results from dysfunction in the inhibitory mechanism exerted by the prefrontal cortex has been the topic of debate. The present review investigates the validity of dysfunction in the prefrontal-amygdala pathway in PTSD. The studies provide evidence that the amygdala and prefrontal cortex exhibit distinct activation patterns in PTSD, thus supporting the model of a dysfunctional circuit. Inconsistencies in the literature may be attributable to distinct PTSD subgroups, different experimental approaches, different contrasts employed in neuroimaging studies, and small sample sizes.(AU)