Is primary health care worth it in the long run? Evidence from Brazil.

This paper assesses whether Brazilian primary health care is worth it in the long-run by estimating the accumulated costs and benefits of its flagship, the Family Health Strategy program (ESF). We employ an alternative strategy centered on years of exposure to the program to incorporate its dynamics. We also account for the program's heterogeneity with respect to the remuneration of ESF health teams and the intensity of coverage across Brazilian municipalities, measure by the number of people assisted by each ESF team, on average. To address heterogeneity in professional earnings, this paper employs, for the first time, a dataset containing the remuneration of professionals allocated to all ESF teams nationwide. The benefits are measured by the avoided deaths and hospitalizations due to causes sensitive to primary care. Results suggest that the net monetary benefit of the program is positive on average, with an optimum time of exposure of approximately 16 years. Significant heterogeneities in cost-benefit results were found since costs outweigh benefits in localities where the coverage is low intensive. On the other hand, the benefits outweigh the costs by 22.5% on average in municipalities with high intensive coverage.

The Brazilian Family Health Strategy and adult health: Evidence from individual and local data for metropolitan areas.

Previous studies have found that the expansion of primary health care in Brazil following the country-wide family health strategy (ESF), one of the largest primary care programs in the world, has improved health outcomes. However, these studies have relied either on aggregate data or on limited individual data, with no fine-grained information available concerning household participation in the ESF or local supply of ESF services, which represent crucial aspects for analytical and policy purposes. This study analyzes the relationship between the ESF and health outcomes for the adult population in metropolitan areas in Brazil. We investigate this relationship through two linked dimensions of the ESF: the program's local supply of health teams and ESF household registration. In contrast with previous studies focusing on comparisons between certain definitions of "treated" versus "nontreated" populations, our results indicate that the local density of health teams is important to the observed effects of the ESF on adult health. We also find evidence consistent with the presence of positive primary health care spillovers to people not registered with the ESF. However, current ESF coverage levels in metropolitan areas have limited ability to address prevailing health inequalities. Our analysis suggests that the local intensity of ESF coverage should be a key consideration for evaluations and policy efforts related to future ESF expansion.

Assessment of the association between the Brazilian family health strategy and adult mortality.

This study aimed to analyse a wide range of related health problems that respond favourably to efficient primary care treatment among adults. We evaluate the direct impact of the Family Health Strategy (ESF) in Brazil on mortality of adults aged 25-64 years related to conditions for which access to effective primary care can reduce the likelihood of more severe outcomes. Additionally, we discuss heterogeneous effects associated with different intensities of the programme. To address these issues, we estimated a model with variation at the municipal level of the ESF expansion, including municipal-fixed effects, municipal specific trends and year-fixed effects. Our results show that a higher intensity of ESF is associated with reduced mortality by all conditions sensitive to primary care and for some diseases, especially after some years: avoidable conditions, asthma, heart failure, cerebrovascular diseases and gastrointestinal ulcer, infectious gastroenteritis and complications, diseases of the lower airways, hypertension and diabetes. As a public policy view, these results help understand how a nationwide primary care strategy can help mitigate mortality and emphasize the role of having sufficient health teams to attend to the population.

Primary care coverage and individual health: evidence from a likelihood model using biomarkers in Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Although the use of biomarkers to assess health outcomes has recently gained momentum, literature is still scarce for low- to middle-income countries. This paper explores the relationship between primary care coverage and individual health in Brazil using a dataset of blood-based biomarkers collected by the Brazilian National Health Survey. Both survey data and laboratory results were crossed with coverage data from the Family Health Strategy (ESF) program, the most important primary care program in Brazil; the coverage measures aim to capture both direct (household) and indirect (spill-over) effects. METHODS: The empirical strategy used a probit model to estimate the relationship between ESF program coverage and the likelihood of abnormal biomarker levels while controlling for a rich set of individual and household characteristics based on data from the national survey. RESULTS: Household ESF coverage was associated with a lower likelihood of abnormal results for biomarkers related to anemia (marginal effect between - 2.16 and - 2.18 percentage points), kidney failure (between - 1.01 and - 1.19 p.p.), and arterial hypertension (between - 1.48 and - 1.64 p.p). The likelihood of abnormal levels of white blood cells and thrombocytes was negatively related to primary care coverage (marginal effect between - 1.8 and - 2 p.p.). The spillover effects were relevant for kidney failure and arterial hypertension, depending on the regional level. Although not sensitive to household coverage, diabetes mellitus was negatively associated with the state supply of primary care, and abnormal cholesterol levels did not present any relationship with ESF program coverage. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of spillover effects of ESF program coverage regarding these conditions reveals that the strengthening of primary care by increasing the household registration and the regional density of ESF teams is an efficient strategy to address important comorbidities.

Custo-efetividade do uso associado de estabilizadores de humor e antipsicóticos atípicos na terapia de manutenção do transtorno bipolar no Sistema Único de Saúde / Cost-effectiveness of mood stabilizers and atypical antipsychotics in maintenance therapy of bipolar disorder in the Brazilian Unified Health System

RESUMOObjetivo: Avaliar a custo-efetividade da associação de antipsicóticos atípicos e estabilizadores de humor na terapia de manutenção do transtorno bipolar no Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). Métodos: Assumindo os custos diretos na perspectiva do SUS, construiu-se um modelo de Markov com as transições entre eutimia, mania, depressão, descontinuação e morte. Dados foram obtidos de ensaios clínicos, coortes prospectivas e bases assistenciais do SUS (valores correntes de 2015). Com uma coorte hipotética (n = 2000, idade = 40 anos), foram simulados ciclos trimestrais no horizonte de até 30 anos (ou efetividade < 1 dia em remissão). Adotaram-se taxas de desconto, correção de meio de ciclo e análises de sensibilidade. Resultados: Os dados de eficácia permitiram apenas a análise da associação com a quetiapina. No horizonte temporal de 12 anos (48 ciclos), ocorreram 512 episódios agudos (depressão: 285, mania: 227) com a monoterapia de lítio ou valproato e 306com associação de quetiapina (depressão: 166, mania: 139). A razão de custo-efetividade incremental (RCEI) da associação com a quetiapina foi de R$ 807,95 por mês adicional em remissão. A análise de sensibilidade demonstrou robustez do modelo, sendo a variação da dose e do preço da quetiapina seus maiores modificadores (amplitude da RCEI de R$ 541,60 a R$ 1.770,05). Conclusões: A terapia de manutenção com a associação da quetiapina ao lítio ou valproato demonstrou ser potencialmentecusto-efetiva. Considerando que o uso de antipsicóticos atípicos não é desprovido de riscos, a estratégia estudada pode ser uma alternativa terapêutica em populações específicas do SUS

ABSTRACTObjective: To evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the combination of atypical antipsychotic and mood stabilizers in maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder in the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS). Methods: Taking direct costs, from the perspective of SUS, we built a Markov model withtransitions between the states: euthymia, mania, depression, discontinuation and death. Data were extracted from clinical trials, prospective cohorts and SUS databases (current values of 2015). In a hypothetical cohort (n = 2,000, age = 40 years), maintenance therapy was simulated over quarterly cycles through a timeframe up to 30 years (until effectiveness < 1 day in remission). Discount rates and half-cycle correction were applied and sensitivity analyses were run. Results: The efficacy data enabled to include only a combination with quetiapine in the analysis. After twelve years (48 cycles), there were 512 acute episodes (depression: 285, mania: 227) for monotherapy with lithium or valproate against 306 (depression: 166, mania 139) for the quetiapine combination. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) for the quetiapine combination was R$ 807.95 per additional month in remission. The sensitivity analysis demonstrated the model?s robustness, while dosage and quetiapine-price variations had most impact in ICER (ranging from R$ 541.60 to R$ 1,770.05 per additional month in remission). Conclusion: Maintenance therapy with the combination of quetiapine andlithium or valproate seems to be cost-effective. As the use of atypical antipsychotics is also associated with risks, the studied strategy can be a therapeutic alternative for specific populations in SUS.

Analysis of the evolution and determinants of income-related inequalities in the Brazilian health system, 1998 - 2008.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the evolution and determinants of income-related inequalities in the Brazilian health system between 1998 and 2008. METHODS: Data from the National Household Sampling Surveys of 1998, 2003, and 2008 were used to analyze inequalities in health and health care. Health was measured by self-reported health status, physical limitations, and chronic illness. Hospitalization and physician and dentist visits were proxies for health care utilization. Income was a proxy for socioeconomic status. Concentration indices were calculated before and after standardization for all dependent variables. Decomposition analysis was used to identify the main determinants of inequality in health care utilization. RESULTS: In all three periods analyzed, the poor reported worse health status, while the wealthy reported more chronic diseases; health care utilization was pro-rich for medical and dental services. Yet, income-related inequality in health care utilization has been declining. Private health insurance, education, and income are the major contributors to the inequalities identified. CONCLUSIONS: Income-related inequality in the use of medical and dental health care is gradually declining in Brazil. The decline is associated with implementation of pro-equity policies and programs, such as the Community Health Agents Program and the Family Health Program.

Analysis of the evolution and determinants of income-related inequalities in the Brazilian health system, 1998 - 2008 / Análisis de la evolución y los determinantes de las desigualdades relacionadas con los ingresos en el sistema de salud de Brasil, 1998 - 2008

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the evolution and determinants of income-related inequalities in the Brazilian health system between 1998 and 2008. METHODS: Data from the National Household Sampling Surveys of 1998, 2003, and 2008 were used to analyze inequalities in health and health care. Health was measured by self-reported health status, physical limitations, and chronic illness. Hospitalization and physician and dentist visits were proxies for health care utilization. Income was a proxy for socioeconomic status. Concentration indices were calculated before and after standardization for all dependent variables. Decomposition analysis was used to identify the main determinants of inequality in health care utilization. RESULTS: In all three periods analyzed, the poor reported worse health status, while the wealthy reported more chronic diseases; health care utilization was pro-rich for medical and dental services. Yet, income-related inequality in health care utilization has been declining. Private health insurance, education, and income are the major contributors to the inequalities identified. CONCLUSIONS: Income-related inequality in the use of medical and dental health care is gradually declining in Brazil. The decline is associated with implementation of pro-equity policies and programs, such as the Community Health Agents Program and the Family Health Program.

OBJETIVOS: Analizar la evolución y los determinantes de las desigualdades relacionadas con los ingresos en el sistema de salud brasileño entre 1998 y 2008. MÉTODOS: Se utilizaron los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares de 1998, 2003 y 2008. La salud se midió según el estado de salud autoevaluado, las limitaciones físicas y las enfermedades crónicas. Las hospitalizaciones y las consultas médicas y odontológicas se usaron como medición indirecta de la utilización de la atención sanitaria, y los ingresos para estimar el nivel socioeconómico. Los índices de concentración para todas las variables dependientes se calcularon antes y después de su estandarización. Se empleó análisis de descomposición para identificar los principales determinantes de desigualdad en la utilización de la atención sanitaria. RESULTADOS: En los tres períodos analizados, las personas con menor nivel socioeconómico informaron un peor estado de salud, mientras que las de mayor nivel informaron más enfermedades crónicas y tuvieron una mayor utilización de la atención sanitaria (servicios médicos y odontológicos). A pesar de esto, la desigualdad en la utilización de la atención sanitaria relacionada con los ingresos ha ido disminuyendo. El seguro de salud privado, la educación y los ingresos son los principales factores que contribuyen a las desigualdades identificadas. CONCLUSIONES: Las desigualdades en la utilización de los servicios médicos y odontológicos relacionadas con los ingresos han disminuido gradualmente en Brasil. Esta disminución se asoció con la aplicación en el país de políticas y programas que favorecen la equidad, como el Programa de Agentes de Salud Comunitarios y el Programa de Salud Familiar.

The effects of processing non-timber forest products and trade partnerships on people's well-being and forest conservation in Amazonian societies.

This study evaluated whether processing non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and establishing trade partnerships between forest communities and companies enhance the outcomes of NTFP commercialization. In particular, we evaluated whether product processing, partnerships, or their combination was associated with a number of outcomes related to the well-being of forest inhabitants and forest conservation. We based our analyses on ethnographic and quantitative data (i.e., survey and systematic observations) gathered at seven communities from five societies of the Brazilian and Bolivian Amazon. Our results indicated that product processing and partnerships do not represent a silver bullet able to improve the results of NTFP commercialization in terms of well-being and conservation indicators. Compared with cases without interventions, households adopting partnerships but not product processing were most often associated with improved economic proxies of well-being (total income, NTFP income, food consumption and gender equality in income). In comparison, the combination of product processing and partnerships was associated with similar outcomes. Unexpectedly, product processing alone was associated with negative outcomes in the economic indicators of well-being. All of the investigated strategies were associated with less time spent in social and cultural activities. With respect to forest conservation, the strategies that included a partnership with or without processing produced similar results: while household deforestation tended to decrease, the hunting impact increased. Processing alone was also associated with higher levels of hunting, though it did not reduce deforestation. Our results indicate that establishing partnerships may enhance the outcomes of NTFP trade in terms of the financial outcomes of local communities, but practitioners need to use caution when adopting the processing strategy and they need to evaluate potential negative results for indicators of social and cultural activities. With respect to conservation, the three strategies are promising for reducing deforestation, but more pervasive impacts, such as hunting, might increase.