IL-33 controls IL-22-dependent antibacterial defense by modulating the microbiota.

IL-22 plays a critical role in defending against mucosal infections, but how IL-22 production is regulated is incompletely understood. Here, we show that mice lacking IL-33 or its receptor ST2 (IL-1RL1) were more resistant to Streptococcus pneumoniae lung infection than wild-type animals and that single-nucleotide polymorphisms in IL33 and IL1RL1 were associated with pneumococcal pneumonia in humans. The effect of IL-33 on S. pneumoniae infection was mediated by negative regulation of IL-22 production in innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) but independent of ILC2s as well as IL-4 and IL-13 signaling. Moreover, IL-33's influence on IL-22-dependent antibacterial defense was dependent on housing conditions of the mice and mediated by IL-33's modulatory effect on the gut microbiota. Collectively, we provide insight into the bidirectional crosstalk between the innate immune system and the microbiota. We conclude that both genetic and environmental factors influence the gut microbiota, thereby impacting the efficacy of antibacterial immune defense and susceptibility to pneumonia.

Cross-regulation of antibody responses against the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein and commensal microbiota via molecular mimicry.

The commensal microflora provides a repertoire of antigens that illicit mucosal antibodies. In some cases, these antibodies can cross-react with host proteins, inducing autoimmunity, or with other microbial antigens. We demonstrate that the oral microbiota can induce salivary anti-SARS-CoV-2 Spike IgG antibodies via molecular mimicry. Anti-Spike IgG antibodies in the saliva correlated with enhanced abundance of Streptococcus salivarius 1 month after anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Several human commensal bacteria, including S. salivarius, were recognized by SARS-CoV-2-neutralizing monoclonal antibodies and induced cross-reactive anti-Spike antibodies in mice, facilitating SARS-CoV-2 clearance. A specific S. salivarius protein, RSSL-01370, contains regions with homology to the Spike receptor-binding domain, and immunization of mice with RSSL-01370 elicited anti-Spike IgG antibodies in the serum. Additionally, oral S. salivarius supplementation enhanced salivary anti-Spike antibodies in vaccinated individuals. Altogether, these data show that distinct species of the human microbiota can express molecular mimics of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein, potentially enhancing protective immunity.

Divergent roles for STAT4 in shaping differentiation of cytotoxic ILC1 and NK cells during gut inflammation.

Natural killer (NK) cells and type 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1) require signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (STAT4) to elicit rapid effector responses and protect against pathogens. By combining genetic and transcriptomic approaches, we uncovered divergent roles for STAT4 in regulating effector differentiation of these functionally related cell types. Stat4 deletion in Ncr1-expressing cells led to impaired NK cell terminal differentiation as well as to an unexpected increased generation of cytotoxic ILC1 during intestinal inflammation. Mechanistically, Stat4-deficient ILC1 exhibited upregulation of gene modules regulated by STAT5 in vivo and an aberrant effector differentiation upon in vitro stimulation with IL-2, used as a prototypical STAT5 activator. Moreover, STAT4 expression in NCR+ innate lymphocytes restrained gut inflammation in the dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis model limiting pathogenic production of IL-13 from adaptive CD4+ T cells in the large intestine. Collectively, our data shed light on shared and distinctive mechanisms of STAT4-regulated transcriptional control in NK cells and ILC1 required for intestinal inflammatory responses.

ILC3s restrict the dissemination of intestinal bacteria to safeguard liver regeneration after surgery.

It is generally believed that environmental or cutaneous bacteria are the main origin of surgical infections. Therefore, measures to prevent postoperative infections focus on optimizing hygiene and improving asepsis and antisepsis. In a large cohort of patients with infections following major surgery, we identified that the causative bacteria are mainly of intestinal origin. Postoperative infections of intestinal origin were also found in mice undergoing partial hepatectomy. CCR6+ group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) limited systemic bacterial spread. Such bulwark function against host invasion required the production of interleukin-22 (IL-22), which controlled the expression of antimicrobial peptides in hepatocytes, thereby limiting bacterial spread. Using genetic loss-of-function experiments and punctual depletion of ILCs, we demonstrate that the failure to restrict intestinal commensals by ILC3s results in impaired liver regeneration. Our data emphasize the importance of endogenous intestinal bacteria as a source for postoperative infection and indicate ILC3s as potential new targets.

IL-17 Signaling in Keratinocytes Orchestrates the Defense against Staphylococcus aureus Skin Infection.

Keratinocytes (KCs) form the outer epithelial barrier of the body, protecting against invading pathogens. Mice lacking the IL-17RA or both IL-17A and IL-17F develop spontaneous Staphylococcusaureus skin infections. We found a marked expansion of T17 cells, comprised of RORγt-expressing γδ T cells and T helper 17 cells in the skin-draining lymph nodes of these mice. Contradictory to previous suggestions, this expansion was not a result of a direct negative feedback loop because we found no expansion of T17 cells in mice lacking IL-17 signaling specifically in T cells. Instead, we found that the T17 expansion depended on the microbiota and was observed only when KCs were deficient for IL-17RA signaling. Indeed, mice that lack IL-17RA only in KCs showed an increased susceptibility to experimental epicutaneous infection with S. aureus together with an accumulation of IL-17A-producing γδ T cells. We conclude that deficiency of IL-17RA on KCs leads to microbiota dysbiosis in the skin, which triggers the expansion of IL-17A-producing T cells. Our data show that KCs are the primary target cells of IL-17A and IL-17F, coordinating the defense against microbial invaders in the skin.

Regulation of innate immune system function by the microbiome: Consequences for tumor immunity and cancer immunotherapy.

Innate effector cells are immune cells endowed with host protective features and cytotoxic functions. By sensing the tissue environment, innate cells have an important role in regulating the transition from homeostasis to inflammation and the establishment of pathological states, including the onset and development of cancer. The tumor microenvironment induces molecular and functional modifications in innate cells, dampening their capability to initiate and sustain anti-tumor immune responses. Emerging studies clearly showed a contribution of the microbiota in modulating the functions of innate cells in cancer. Commensal microorganisms can not only directly interact with innate cells in the tumor microenvironment but can also exert immunomodulatory features from non-tumor sites through the release of microbial products. The microbiota can mediate the priming of innate cells at mucosal tissues and determine the strength of immune responses mediated by such cells when they migrate to non-mucosal tissues, having an impact on cancer. Finally, several evidences reported a strong contribution of the microbiota in promoting innate immune responses during anti-cancer therapies leading to enhanced therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we considered the current knowledge on the role of the microbiota in shaping host innate immune responses in cancer.

Non-redundant functions of group 2 innate lymphoid cells.

Protective immunity relies on the interplay of innate and adaptive immune cells with complementary and redundant functions. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) have recently emerged as tissue-resident, innate mirror images of the T cell system, with which they share lineage-specifying transcription factors and effector machinery1. Located at barrier surfaces, ILCs are among the first responders against invading pathogens and thus could potentially determine the outcome of the immune response2. However, so far it has not been possible to dissect the unique contributions of ILCs to protective immunity owing to limitations in specific targeting of ILC subsets. Thus, all of the available data have been generated either in mice lacking the adaptive immune system or with tools that also affect other immune cell subsets. In addition, it has been proposed that ILCs might be dispensable for a proper immune response because other immune cells could compensate for their absence3-7. Here we report the generation of a mouse model based on the neuromedin U receptor 1 (Nmur1) promoter as a driver for simultaneous expression of Cre recombinase and green fluorescent protein, which enables gene targeting in group 2 ILCs (ILC2s) without affecting other innate and adaptive immune cells. Using Cre-mediated gene deletion of Id2 and Gata3 in Nmur1-expressing cells, we generated mice with a selective and specific deficiency in ILC2s. ILC2-deficient mice have decreased eosinophil counts at steady state and are unable to recruit eosinophils to the airways in models of allergic asthma. Further, ILC2-deficient mice do not mount an appropriate immune and epithelial type 2 response, resulting in a profound defect in worm expulsion and a non-protective type 3 immune response. In total, our data establish non-redundant functions for ILC2s in the presence of adaptive immune cells at steady state and during disease and argue for a multilayered organization of the immune system on the basis of a spatiotemporal division of labour.

An interdisciplinary approach to characterize peanut-allergic patients-First data from the FOOD@ consortium.

Background: Peanut allergy is a frequent cause of food allergy and potentially life-threatening. Within this interdisciplinary research approach, we aim to unravel the complex mechanisms of peanut allergy. As a first step were applied in an exploratory manner the analysis of peanut allergic versus non-allergic controls. Methods: Biosamples were studied regarding DNA methylation signatures, gut microbiome, adaptive and innate immune cell populations, soluble signaling molecules and allergen-reactive antibody specificities. We applied a scalable systems medicine computational workflow to the assembled data. Results: We identified combined cellular and soluble biomarker signatures that stratify donors into peanut-allergic and non-allergic with high specificity. DNA methylation profiling revealed various genes of interest and stool microbiota differences in bacteria abundances. Conclusion: By extending our findings to a larger set of patients (e.g., children vs. adults), we will establish predictors for food allergy and tolerance and translate these as for example, indicators for interventional studies.

Type 1 innate lymphoid cells regulate the onset of Toxoplasma gondii-induced neuroinflammation.

Cerebral infections are restrained by a complex interplay of tissue-resident and recruited peripheral immune cells. Whether innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are involved in the orchestration of the neuroinflammatory dynamics is not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate that ILCs accumulate in the cerebral parenchyma, the choroid plexus, and the meninges in the onset of cerebral Toxoplasma gondii infection. Antibody-mediated depletion of conventional natural killer (cNK) cells and ILC1s in the early stage of infection results in diminished cytokine and chemokine expression and increased cerebral parasite burden. Using cNK- and ILC1-deficient murine models, we demonstrate that exclusively the lack of ILC1s affects cerebral immune responses. In summary, our results provide evidence that ILC1s are an early source of IFN-γ and TNF in response to cerebral T. gondii infection, thereby inducing host defense factors and initiating the development of a neuroinflammatory response.

ID2 controls differentiation of enteroendocrine cells in mouse small intestine.

AIMS: The mammalian gut is the largest endocrine organ. Dozens of hormones secreted by enteroendocrine cells regulate a variety of physiological functions of the gut but also of the pancreas and brain. Here, we examined the role of the helix-loop-helix transcription factor ID2 during the differentiation of intestinal stem cells along the enteroendocrine lineage. METHODS: To assess the functions of ID2 in the adult mouse small intestine, we used single-cell RNA sequencing, genetically modified mice, and organoid assays. RESULTS: We found that in the adult intestinal epithelium Id2 is predominantly expressed in enterochromaffin and peptidergic enteroendocrine cells. Consistently, the loss of Id2 leads to the reduction of Chromogranin A-positive enteroendocrine cells. In contrast, the numbers of tuft cells are increased in Id2 mutant small intestine. Moreover, ablation of Id2 elevates the numbers of Serotonin+ enterochromaffin cells and Ghrelin+ X-cells in the posterior part of the small intestine. Finally, ID2 acts downstream of BMP signalling during the differentiation of Glucagon-like peptide-1+ L-cells and Cholecystokinin+ I-cells towards Neurotensin+ PYY+ N-cells. CONCLUSION: ID2 plays an important role in cell fate decisions in the adult small intestine. First, ID2 is essential for establishing a differentiation gradient for enterochromaffin and X-cells along the anterior-posterior axis of the gut. Next, ID2 is necessary for the differentiation of N-cells thus ensuring a differentiation gradient along the crypt-villi axis. Finally, ID2 suppresses the commitment of secretory intestinal epithelial progenitors towards tuft cell lineage and thus controls host immune response to commensal and parasitic microbiota.

Guidelines for the use of flow cytometry and cell sorting in immunological studies (third edition).

The third edition of Flow Cytometry Guidelines provides the key aspects to consider when performing flow cytometry experiments and includes comprehensive sections describing phenotypes and functional assays of all major human and murine immune cell subsets. Notably, the Guidelines contain helpful tables highlighting phenotypes and key differences between human and murine cells. Another useful feature of this edition is the flow cytometry analysis of clinical samples with examples of flow cytometry applications in the context of autoimmune diseases, cancers as well as acute and chronic infectious diseases. Furthermore, there are sections detailing tips, tricks and pitfalls to avoid. All sections are written and peer-reviewed by leading flow cytometry experts and immunologists, making this edition an essential and state-of-the-art handbook for basic and clinical researchers.

Antigen-presenting innate lymphoid cells orchestrate neuroinflammation.

Pro-inflammatory T cells in the central nervous system (CNS) are causally associated with multiple demyelinating and neurodegenerative diseases1-6, but the pathways that control these responses remain unclear. Here we define a population of inflammatory group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3s) that infiltrate the CNS in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. These ILC3s are derived from the circulation, localize in proximity to infiltrating T cells in the CNS, function as antigen-presenting cells that restimulate myelin-specific T cells, and are increased in individuals with multiple sclerosis. Notably, antigen presentation by inflammatory ILC3s is required to promote T cell responses in the CNS and the development of multiple-sclerosis-like disease in mouse models. By contrast, conventional and tissue-resident ILC3s in the periphery do not appear to contribute to disease induction, but instead limit autoimmune T cell responses and prevent multiple-sclerosis-like disease when experimentally targeted to present myelin antigen. Collectively, our data define a population of inflammatory ILC3s that is essential for directly promoting T-cell-dependent neuroinflammation in the CNS and reveal the potential of harnessing peripheral tissue-resident ILC3s for the prevention of autoimmune disease.

Untimely TGFß responses in COVID-19 limit antiviral functions of NK cells.

SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus that causes COVID-19. Given its acute and often self-limiting course, it is likely that components of the innate immune system play a central part in controlling virus replication and determining clinical outcome. Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes with notable activity against a broad range of viruses, including RNA viruses1,2. NK cell function may be altered during COVID-19 despite increased representation of NK cells with an activated and adaptive phenotype3,4. Here we show that a decline in viral load in COVID-19 correlates with NK cell status and that NK cells can control SARS-CoV-2 replication by recognizing infected target cells. In severe COVID-19, NK cells show defects in virus control, cytokine production and cell-mediated cytotoxicity despite high expression of cytotoxic effector molecules. Single-cell RNA sequencing of NK cells over the time course of the COVID-19 disease spectrum reveals a distinct gene expression signature. Transcriptional networks of interferon-driven NK cell activation are superimposed by a dominant transforming growth factor-ß (TGFß) response signature, with reduced expression of genes related to cell-cell adhesion, granule exocytosis and cell-mediated cytotoxicity. In severe COVID-19, serum levels of TGFß peak during the first two weeks of infection, and serum obtained from these patients severely inhibits NK cell function in a TGFß-dependent manner. Our data reveal that an untimely production of TGFß is a hallmark of severe COVID-19 and may inhibit NK cell function and early control of the virus.

Granzyme A and CD160 expression delineates ILC1 with graded functions in the mouse liver.

Type 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1) are tissue-resident lymphocytes that provide early protection against bacterial and viral infections. Discrete transcriptional states of ILC1 have been identified in homeostatic and pathological contexts. However, whether these states delineate ILC1 with different functional properties is not completely understood. Here, we show that liver ILC1 are heterogeneous for the expression of distinct effector molecules and surface receptors, including granzyme A (GzmA) and CD160, in mice. ILC1 expressing high levels of GzmA are enriched in the liver of adult mice, and represent the main hepatic ILC1 population at birth. However, the heterogeneity of GzmA and CD160 expression in hepatic ILC1 begins perinatally and increases with age. GzmA+ ILC1 differ from NK cells for the limited homeostatic requirements of JAK/STAT signals and the transcription factor Nfil3. Moreover, by employing Rorc(γt)-fate map (fm) reporter mice, we established that ILC3-ILC1 plasticity contributes to delineate the heterogeneity of liver ILC1, with RORγt-fm+ cells skewed toward a GzmA- CD160+ phenotype. Finally, we showed that ILC1 defined by the expression of GzmA and CD160 are characterized by graded cytotoxic potential and ability to produce IFN-γ. In conclusion, our findings help deconvoluting ILC1 heterogeneity and provide evidence for functional diversification of liver ILC1.

Rotavirus susceptibility of antibiotic-treated mice ascribed to diminished expression of interleukin-22.

The commensal microbiota regulates susceptibility to enteric pathogens by fine-tuning mucosal innate immune responses, but how susceptibility to enteric viruses is shaped by the microbiota remains incompletely understood. Past reports have indicated that commensal bacteria may either promote or repress rotavirus replication in the small intestine of mice. We now report that rotavirus replicated more efficiently in the intestines of germ-free and antibiotic-treated mice compared to animals with an unmodified microbiota. Antibiotic treatment also facilitated rotavirus replication in type I and type III interferon (IFN) receptor-deficient mice, revealing IFN-independent proviral effects. Expression of interleukin-22 (IL-22) was strongly diminished in the intestine of antibiotic-treated mice. Treatment with exogenous IL-22 blocked rotavirus replication in microbiota-depleted wild-type and Stat1-/- mice, demonstrating that the antiviral effect of IL-22 in animals with altered microbiome is not dependent on IFN signaling. In antibiotic-treated animals, IL-22-induced a specific set of genes including Fut2, encoding fucosyl-transferase 2 that participates in the biosynthesis of fucosylated glycans which can mediate rotavirus binding. Interestingly, IL-22 also blocked rotavirus replication in antibiotic-treated Fut2-/- mice. Furthermore, IL-22 inhibited rotavirus replication in antibiotic-treated mice lacking key molecules of the necroptosis or pyroptosis pathways of programmed cell death. Taken together, our results demonstrate that IL-22 determines rotavirus susceptibility of antibiotic-treated mice, yet the IL-22-induced effector molecules conferring rotavirus resistance remain elusive.

Impaired humoral and cellular immunity after SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 (tozinameran) prime-boost vaccination in kidney transplant recipients.

Novel mRNA-based vaccines have been proven to be powerful tools in combating the global pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, with BNT162b2 (trade name: Comirnaty) efficiently protecting individuals from COVID-19 across a broad age range. Still, it remains largely unknown how renal insufficiency and immunosuppressive medication affect development of vaccine-induced immunity. We therefore comprehensively analyzed humoral and cellular responses in kidney transplant recipients after the standard second vaccination dose. As opposed to all healthy vaccinees and the majority of hemodialysis patients, only 4 of 39 and 1 of 39 transplanted individuals showed IgA and IgG seroconversion at day 8 ± 1 after booster immunization, with minor changes until day 23 ± 5, respectively. Although most transplanted patients mounted spike-specific T helper cell responses, frequencies were significantly reduced compared with those in controls and dialysis patients and this was accompanied by a broad impairment in effector cytokine production, memory differentiation, and activation-related signatures. Spike-specific CD8+ T cell responses were less abundant than their CD4+ counterparts in healthy controls and hemodialysis patients and almost undetectable in transplant patients. Promotion of anti-HLA antibodies or acute rejection was not detected after vaccination. In summary, our data strongly suggest revised vaccination approaches in immunosuppressed patients, including individual immune monitoring for protection of this vulnerable group at risk of developing severe COVID-19.

Suitability of current typing procedures to identify epidemiologically linked human Giardia duodenalis isolates.

BACKGROUND: Giardia duodenalis is a leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. Humans are mainly infected by two different subtypes, i.e., assemblage A and B. Genotyping is hampered by allelic sequence heterozygosity (ASH) mainly in assemblage B, and by occurrence of mixed infections. Here we assessed the suitability of current genotyping protocols of G. duodenalis for epidemiological applications such as molecular tracing of transmission chains. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Two G. duodenalis isolate collections, from an outpatient tropical medicine clinic and from several primary care laboratories, were characterized by assemblage-specific qPCR (TIF, CATH gene loci) and a common multi locus sequence typing (MLST; TPI, BG, GDH gene loci). Assemblage A isolates were further typed at additional loci (HCMP22547, CID1, RHP26, HCMP6372, DIS3, NEK15411). Of 175/202 (86.6%) patients the G. duodenalis assemblage could be identified: Assemblages A 25/175 (14.3%), B 115/175 (65.7%) and A+B mixed 35/175 (20.0%). By incorporating allelic sequence heterozygosity in the analysis, the three marker MLST correctly identified 6/9 (66,7%) and 4/5 (80.0%) consecutive samples from chronic assemblage B infections in the two collections, respectively, and identified a cluster of five independent patients carrying assemblage B parasites of identical MLST type. Extended MLST for assemblage A altogether identified 5/6 (83,3%) consecutive samples from chronic assemblage A infections and 15 novel genotypes. Based on the observed A+B mixed infections it is estimated that only 75% and 50% of assemblage A or B only cases represent single strain infections, respectively. We demonstrate that typing results are consistent with this prediction. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Typing of assemblage A and B isolates with resolution for epidemiological applications is possible but requires separate genotyping protocols. The high frequency of multiple infections and their impact on typing results are findings with immediate consequences for result interpretation in this field.

SARS-CoV-2 in severe COVID-19 induces a TGF-ß-dominated chronic immune response that does not target itself.

The pathogenesis of severe COVID-19 reflects an inefficient immune reaction to SARS-CoV-2. Here we analyze, at the single cell level, plasmablasts egressed into the blood to study the dynamics of adaptive immune response in COVID-19 patients requiring intensive care. Before seroconversion in response to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, peripheral plasmablasts display a type 1 interferon-induced gene expression signature; however, following seroconversion, plasmablasts lose this signature, express instead gene signatures induced by IL-21 and TGF-ß, and produce mostly IgG1 and IgA1. In the sustained immune reaction from COVID-19 patients, plasmablasts shift to the expression of IgA2, thereby reflecting an instruction by TGF-ß. Despite their continued presence in the blood, plasmablasts are not found in the lungs of deceased COVID-19 patients, nor does patient IgA2 binds to the dominant antigens of SARS-CoV-2. Our results thus suggest that, in severe COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2 triggers a chronic immune reaction that is instructed by TGF-ß, and is distracted from itself.

Group 3 Innate Lymphoid Cells Program a Distinct Subset of IL-22BP-Producing Dendritic Cells Demarcating Solitary Intestinal Lymphoid Tissues.

Solitary intestinal lymphoid tissues such as cryptopatches (CPs) and isolated lymphoid follicles (ILFs) constitute steady-state activation hubs containing group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3) that continuously produce interleukin (IL)-22. The outer surface of CPs and ILFs is demarcated by a poorly characterized population of CD11c+ cells. Using genome-wide single-cell transcriptional profiling of intestinal mononuclear phagocytes and multidimensional flow cytometry, we found that CP- and ILF-associated CD11c+ cells were a transcriptionally distinct subset of intestinal cDCs, which we term CIA-DCs. CIA-DCs required programming by CP- and ILF-resident CCR6+ ILC3 via lymphotoxin-ß receptor signaling in cDCs. CIA-DCs differentially expressed genes associated with immunoregulation and were the major cellular source of IL-22 binding protein (IL-22BP) at steady state. Mice lacking CIA-DC-derived IL-22BP exhibited diminished expression of epithelial lipid transporters, reduced lipid resorption, and changes in body fat homeostasis. Our findings provide insight into the design principles of an immunoregulatory checkpoint controlling nutrient absorption.

NK Cell Development in Times of Innate Lymphoid Cell Diversity.

After being described in the 1970s as cytotoxic cells that do not require MHC-dependent pre-activation, natural killer (NK) cells remained the sole member of innate lymphocytes for decades until lymphoid tissue-inducer cells in the 1990s and helper-like innate lymphoid lineages from 2008 onward completed the picture of innate lymphoid cell (ILC) diversity. Since some of the ILC members, such as ILC1s and CCR6- ILC3s, share specific markers previously used to identify NK cells, these findings provoked the question of how to delineate the development of NK cell and helper-like ILCs and how to properly identify and genetically interfere with NK cells. The description of eomesodermin (EOMES) as a lineage-specifying transcription factor of NK cells provided a candidate that may serve as a selective marker for the genetic targeting and identification of NK cells. Unlike helper-like ILCs, NK cell activation is, to a large degree, regulated by the engagement of activating and inhibitory surface receptors. NK cell research has revealed some elegant mechanisms of immunosurveillance, coined "missing-self" and "induced-self" recognition, thus complementing "non-self recognition", which is predominantly utilized by adaptive lymphocytes and myeloid cells. Notably, the balance of activating and inhibitory signals perceived by surface receptors can be therapeutically harnessed for anti-tumor immunity mediated by NK cells. This review aims to summarize the similarities and the differences in development, function, localization, and phenotype of NK cells and helper-like ILCs, with the purpose to highlight the unique feature of NK cell development and regulation.