Risk of Conversion to Dementia in a Mild Behavioral Impairment Group Compared to a Psychiatric Group and to a Mild Cognitive Impairment Group.

BACKGROUND: There is insufficient available information on behavioral changes in the absence of cognitive impairment as factors increasing the risk of conversion to dementia. OBJECTIVE: To observe and analyze patients with mild behavioral impairment (MBI), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and a psychiatry group (PG) to compare the risk of progression to dementia. METHODS: From 677 initially assessed ≥60-year-old patients, a series of 348 patients was studied for a five-year period until censoring or conversion to dementia: 96 with MBI, 87 with MCI, and 165 with general psychiatry disorders, including 4 subgroups: Anxiety, Depression, Psychosis and Others. All patients were assessed with clinical, psychiatric, neurological, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging studies. RESULTS: From 348 patients, 126 evolved to dementia (36.2%). Conversion was significantly higher in MBI (71.5%), followed by the MCI-MBI overlap (59.6%) and MCI (37.8%) groups, compared to PG (13.9%) (Log-rank p < 0.001). MCI patients mostly converted to Alzheimer's dementia, while MBI converted to frontotemporal dementia and Lewy body dementia. Patients in PG converted to Lewy body dementia and frontotemporal dementia. CONCLUSION: Conversion to dementia is significantly higher in patients with neuropsychiatric symptoms. The MBI concept generates a new milestone in the refining of diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases and the possibility of creating neuropsychiatric profiles. Its earlier identification will allow new possibilities for therapeutic intervention.

Prevalence of Geriatric Depression and Alexithymia and their association with sociodemographic characteristics in a sample of elderly persons living in Buenos Aires, Argentina / Prevalencia de Depresión Geriátrica y Alexitimia. Su asociación con características sociodemográficas, en una muestra de adultos mayores residentes en Buenos Aires, Argentina

Abstract Objective: to evaluate the prevalence of Geriatric Depression and Alexithymia and their association with sociodemographic characteristics in independent elderly persons without known depression. Method: a cross-sectional study was conducted, based on a non-probabilistic, intentional type sampling strategy. A total of 176 independent men and women aged over 60 years residing in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, were evaluated through individual interviews using the following instruments: a sociodemographic (ad hoc) questionnaire, an adapted version of the questionnaire of the Yesavage Geriatric Depression Scale (V-15) and the Latin American Alexithymia LAC TAS-20 Scale. The Chi-squared and Student's t-tests were used and the Odds Ratio was calculated, with a probability of error less than or equal to 0.05. Results: The mean age was 73 years (+7.1 years) and 72.7% of the participants were women. The prevalence of Geriatric Depression was 35.8%, while that of Alexithymia was 50.6%. The presence of Geriatric Depression was significantly associated with the female gender and with individuals who did not work. High Alexithymia values were observed among those with primary education and a low occupational level. Conclusion: The evaluation of Geriatric Depression and Alexithymia in clinical care is recommended, and the social determinants of the health of the elderly should also be considered in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions. AU

Resumen Objetivo: Evaluar la prevalencia de Depresión Geriátrica y Alexitimia y su asociación con las características sociodemográficas de los adultos mayores autoválidos sin depresión conocida. Método: Estudio de corte transversal. La estrategia de muestreo seleccionada fue la no probabilística, de tipo intencional. Se seleccionaron 176 adultos mayores de 60 años, de diferente género y autoválidos, residentes en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina, los cuales fueron evaluados a través de una entrevista individual con los siguientes instrumentos: Cuestionario de datos sociodemográficos (ad hoc), adaptación del Cuestionario de Depresión Geriátrica de Yesavage (V-15) y la Escala Latinoamericana de Alexitimia LAC TAS-20. Se utilizaron las pruebas de χ2 (Ji cuadrado), t de Student y se calcularon los Odds Ratio, fijándose una probabilidad de error menor o igual a 0,05. Resultados: La edad media fue 73 años (+7,1 años) y el 72,7% son mujeres. La prevalencia de Depresión Geriátrica fue de 35,8%, y de Alexitimia del 50,6%. La presencia de Depresión Geriátrica se asoció significativamente con el género femenino y con los que no trabajaban. Altos valores de Alexitimia se observaron entre quienes tenían estudios primarios y un bajo nivel ocupacional. Conclusión: Se recomienda la evaluación de Depresión Geriátrica y Alexitimia en la atención clínica, considerando además, para su diagnóstico y tratamiento a los determinantes sociales de la salud de los adultos mayores.AU

[A survey on biomarkers and early diagnosis in Alzheimer's disease]. / Una encuesta sobre biomarcadores y diagnóstico precoz de la enfermedad de Alzheimer.

Given the potential use of biomarkers in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in early stages, new ethical and communication dilemmas appear in everyday clinical practice. The aim of this study was to know the opinion of health professionals (HP) and general public (GP) on the implementation of early diagnostic techniques in AD and the use of biomarkers for this purpose. A survey with multiple choice answers was elaborated in two versions: one for HP and the other for GP. Respondents were invited to participate through a system of mass mailing e-mail; e-mail addresses were collected from CEMIC database. A total of 1503 answers were analyzed: 807 HP and 696 GP. Most respondents, 84.7%, preferred the option of early diagnosis of AD even knowing the lack of curative treatment. Forty five percent of GP and 26.8% of HP replied that there is no ethical dilemma in the use of biomarkers and that no communication or ethical dilemma is generated to physicians when informing the diagnosis of the disease. The HP group showed more divergence in the views than the GP group. These results may indicate a change in the physician-patient relationship, showing the GP group with an active and supportive position towards the use of biomarkers for early diagnosis of AD.

Una encuesta sobre biomarcadores y diagnóstico precoz de la enfermedad de Alzheimer / A survey on biomarkers and early diagnosis in Alzheimer's disease

Ante el uso potencial de biomarcadores para el diagnóstico temprano de la enfermedad de Alzheimer (EA), nuevos dilemas éticos y de comunicación aparecen en la práctica clínica cotidiana. El objetivo de este trabajo fue conocer la opinión de profesionales de la salud (PS) y del público en general (PG) sobre la realización de técnicas diagnósticas tempranas en la EA utilizando marcadores biológicos, aun a sabiendas que hasta ahora la enfermedad es incurable. Se confeccionó una encuesta en Internet con respuesta múltiple en dos versiones: una para PS y otra para el PG. Se invitó a participar a los encuestados a través de un sistema legal de envíos masivos de correo electrónico, utilizando direcciones recolectadas en la base de datos del CEMIC. Se analizaron 1503 respuestas: 807 grupo PS y 696 grupo PG. La mayoría de los encuestados (84.7%) prefirió la opción de realizar el diagnóstico temprano de la EA aun conociendo la falta de tratamiento curativo. El 45.1% del grupo PG vs. el 26.8% del grupo PS respondió que no cree que se genere un dilema de comunicación ni ético en los médicos al informar el diagnóstico de la enfermedad. El grupo PS mostró mayor divergencia en las opiniones que el PG. Estos resultados podrían indicar una nueva dinámica en la relación médico-paciente, mostrando al PG con una posición activa y favorable frente al uso de los biomarcadores para el diagnóstico temprano de la EA.

Given the potential use of biomarkers in the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) in early stages, new ethical and communication dilemmas appear in everyday clinical practice. The aim of this study was to know the opinion of health professionals (HP) and general public (GP) on the implementation of early diagnostic techniques in AD and the use of biomarkers for this purpose. A survey with multiple choice answers was elaborated in two versions: one for HP and the other for GP. Respondents were invited to participate through a system of mass mailing e-mail; e-mail addresses were collected from CEMIC database. A total of 1503 answers were analyzed: 807 HP and 696 GP. Most respondents, 84.7%, preferred the option of early diagnosis of AD even knowing the lack of curative treatment. Forty five percent of GP and 26.8% of HP replied that there is no ethical dilemma in the use of biomarkers and that no communication or ethical dilemma is generated to physicians when informing the diagnosis of the disease. The HP group showed more divergence in the views than the GP group. These results may indicate a change in the physician-patient relationship, showing the GP group with an active and supportive position towards the use of biomarkers for early diagnosis of AD.

[Acute stress disorder in the emergency, its relationship with trigger factors from a gender perspective]. / Las crisis de angustia en la urgencia y su relación con los factores desencadenantes desde una perspectiva de género.

BACKGROUND: Anxiety disorders and, in particular, acute stress disorder are one of the principal reasons for medical assistance, being the women the ones who frequently consult. AIMS: To describe and analyze, from a perspective of gender, the factors that unleash the consultation of an episode of acute stress disorder in the emergency. MATERIALS AND METHOD: An exploratory descriptive study was performed. A semi-directed interview and a socio-demographic questionnaire were assessed and scales to evaluate anxiety and depression were administered to females that consulted for an acute stress disorder. RESULTS: Sixty nine percent of the patients described the physical discomfort as trigger factor, presenting in the 85% of the cases a degree of major anxiety; associating the family conflicts as the principal cause of distress, followed by violence against women. The situation of distress, in 75% of the cases, did not correspond with an isolated episode. CONCLUSION: The physical symptomatology was the principal cause for consultation of an episode of acute stress disorder in the emergency, being the family conflicts and the violence against women the principal reasons of distress. Therefore, interdisciplinary approach for the assistance of mental disorders in emergency should be taken in consideration.

Geriatric depression and its relation with cognitive impairment and dementia.

Different subtypes of depressive syndromes exist in late life; many of them have cognitive impairment and sometimes it is difficult to differentiate them from dementia. This research aimed to investigate subtypes of geriatric depression associated with cognitive impairment, searched for differential variables and tried to propose a study model. A hundred and eighteen depressive patients and forty normal subjects matched by age and educational level were evaluated with an extensive neuropsychological battery, scales to evaluate neuropsychiatric symptoms and daily life activities (DLA). Depressive patients were classified in groups by SCAN 2.1: Major Depression Disorder (MDD) (n: 31), Dysthymia Disorder (DD) (n: 31), Subsyndromal Depression Disorder (SSD) (n: 29), Depression due to Dementia (n: 27) (DdD). Neuropsychological significant differences (p<0.05) were observed between depressive groups, demonstrating distinctive cognitive profiles. Moreover, significant differences (p<0.05) were found in DLA between DdD vs all groups and MDD vs controls and vs SSD. Age of onset varied in the different subtypes of depression. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) were significant variables that helped to differentiate depressive groups. Significant correlations between BDI and Neuropsychological tests were found in MDD and DD groups. Depressive symptoms and its relation with neuropsychological variables, MMSE, cognitive profiles, DLA and age of onset of depression should be taken into consideration for the study of subtypes of geriatric depression.

Las crisis de angustia en la urgencia y su relación con los factores desencadenantes desde una perspectiva de género / [Acute stress disorder in the emergency, its relationship with trigger factors from a gender perspective].

BACKGROUND: Anxiety disorders and, in particular, acute stress disorder are one of the principal reasons for medical assistance, being the women the ones who frequently consult. AIMS: To describe and analyze, from a perspective of gender, the factors that unleash the consultation of an episode of acute stress disorder in the emergency. MATERIALS AND METHOD: An exploratory descriptive study was performed. A semi-directed interview and a socio-demographic questionnaire were assessed and scales to evaluate anxiety and depression were administered to females that consulted for an acute stress disorder. RESULTS: Sixty nine percent of the patients described the physical discomfort as trigger factor, presenting in the 85

of the cases a degree of major anxiety; associating the family conflicts as the principal cause of distress, followed by violence against women. The situation of distress, in 75

of the cases, did not correspond with an isolated episode. CONCLUSION: The physical symptomatology was the principal cause for consultation of an episode of acute stress disorder in the emergency, being the family conflicts and the violence against women the principal reasons of distress. Therefore, interdisciplinary approach for the assistance of mental disorders in emergency should be taken in consideration.

Las crisis de angustia en la urgencia y su relación con los factores desencadenantes desde una perspectiva de género. / [Acute stress disorder in the emergency, its relationship with trigger factors from a gender perspective].

BACKGROUND: Anxiety disorders and, in particular, acute stress disorder are one of the principal reasons for medical assistance, being the women the ones who frequently consult. AIMS: To describe and analyze, from a perspective of gender, the factors that unleash the consultation of an episode of acute stress disorder in the emergency. MATERIALS AND METHOD: An exploratory descriptive study was performed. A semi-directed interview and a socio-demographic questionnaire were assessed and scales to evaluate anxiety and depression were administered to females that consulted for an acute stress disorder. RESULTS: Sixty nine percent of the patients described the physical discomfort as trigger factor, presenting in the 85

of the cases a degree of major anxiety; associating the family conflicts as the principal cause of distress, followed by violence against women. The situation of distress, in 75

of the cases, did not correspond with an isolated episode. CONCLUSION: The physical symptomatology was the principal cause for consultation of an episode of acute stress disorder in the emergency, being the family conflicts and the violence against women the principal reasons of distress. Therefore, interdisciplinary approach for the assistance of mental disorders in emergency should be taken in consideration.

Deterioro cognitivo leve: riesgo de demencia según subtipos / Mild cognitive Impairment: Risk of Dementia according to Subtypes

El deterioro cognitivo leve (DCL) presenta 3 subtipos clínicos: amnésico (DCLa), múltiples dominios (DCLmd) y dominio único no amnésico (DCLduna), cuya evolutividad a demencia no ha sido extensamente estudiada. El objetivo de este trabajo es evaluar la conversión a demencia de los diferentes subtipos de DCL y determinar los factores de riesgo asociados a la misma. Métodos: Se reclutaron 127 pacientes con Deterioro Cognitivo Leve (edad 70,21; DS 13,17) fueron evaluados conuna batería neuropsicológica y neuropsiquiátrica y clasificados en 3 grupos: DCLa (n=20), DCLmd (n=98) y DCLduna (n=9). Diecisiete controles normales (edad 74,59; DE 10,63) fueron incluidos. Resultados: El 27,1% de los pacientes con DCL desarrolló demencia tipo Alzheimer (promedio 11,12 meses, DE=0,183).Ninguno de los controles convirtió a demencia. El 35% (n=7) del grupo con DCLa convirtió a Demencia: un 20% (n=4) a6 meses y un 15% (n=3) a 12 meses; 11,1% (n=1) del grupo con DCLduna convirtió a demencia en 6 meses. El 31,6%(n=31) de DCLmd rotó a demencia: el 15,3% (n=15) en 6meses y un 16,3% (n=16) al año. La edad (p<0,05, β=1,03) aumentó la probabilidad de conversión a demencia. El grupo de DCLmd fue el más frecuente, sin embargo fue mayor la conversión a demencia en el DCLa, siendo la edad y la jubilación las variables que aumentaron la probabilidad de conversión (AU)

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) has 3 clinical subtypes: amnestic (aMCI), multiple domains (mdMCI) and non-amnestic single domain (na-SD-MCI) whose evolutive possibility to dementia has not been profoundly studied. Objective: This paper aims to determine the conversion to dementia of the different subtypes of MCI and determine risk factors associated to conversion to dementia. Methods: A total of 127 patients diagnosed with MCI (age=70.21; SD=13.17) were evaluated with a neuropsychological and neuropsychiatric battery. They were classified into 3 groups: amnestic MCI (n=20), multiple domain MCI (n=98), non-amnestic MCI (n=9). Seventeen normal subjects (age=74.59; SD=10.63) were included. Results: Of those included, 27.1% developed Alzheimer’s type dementia [average time for conversion to Alzheimer’s dementia (AD) 11.12 months (SD=0.183)]. None of the controls developed dementia. Thirty-five percent (n=7) of amnestic MCI converted to AD: 20% (n=4) at 6 months and15% (n=3) at 12 months); 11.1% (n=1) of the non-amnestic single domain MCI converted to AD at 6 months. It was found that 31.6% (n=31) of multiple domain MCI rotated to AD: 15.3% (n=15) at 6 months and 16.3% (n=16) at 12months. Age (p<0.05, β=1.03) increased the likelihood of rotation to AD. Multi-domain MCI subtype was the most frequent. However, the conversion to dementia in amnestic subtype was the highest, age and retirement being the variables that increased the likelihood of conversion to Dementia (AU)

Mild cognitive impairment: risk of dementia according to subtypes.

UNLABELLED: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) has 3 clinical subtypes: amnestic (aMCI), multiple domains (mdMCI) and non-amnestic single domain (na-SD-MCI) whose evolutive possibility to dementia has not been profoundly studied. OBJECTIVE: This paper aims to determine the conversion to dementia of the different subtypes of MCI and determine risk factors associated to conversion to dementia. METHODS: A total of 127 patients diagnosed with MCI (age=70.21; SD=13.17) were evaluated with a neuropsychological and neuropsychiatric battery. They were classified into 3 groups: amnestic MCI (n=20), multiple-domain MCI (n=98), non-amnestic MCI (n=9). Seventeen normal subjects (age=74.59; SD=10.63) were included. RESULTS: Of those included, 27.1% developed Alzheimer's type dementia [average time for conversion to Alzheimer's dementia (AD) 11.12 months (SD=0.183)]. None of the controls developed dementia. Thirty-five percent (n=7) of amnestic MCI converted to AD: 20% (n=4) at 6 months and 15% (n=3) at 12 months); 11.1% (n=1) of the non-amnestic single domain MCI converted to AD at 6 months. It was found that 31.6% (n=31) of multiple domain MCI rotated to AD: 15.3% (n=15) at 6 months and 16.3% (n=16) at 12 months. Age (p<0.05, ß=1.03) increased the likelihood of rotation to AD. Multi-domain MCI subtype was the most frequent. However, the conversion to dementia in amnestic subtype was the highest, age and retirement being the variables that increased the likelihood of conversion to Dementia.

Behavioral symptoms related to cognitive impairment.

Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) are core features of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. On one hand, behavioral symptoms in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) can indicate an increased risk of progressing to dementia. On the other hand, mild behavioral impairment (MBI) in patients who usually have normal cognition indicates an increased risk of developing dementia. Whatever the cause, all dementias carry a high rate of NPI. These symptoms can be observed at any stage of the disease, may fluctuate over its course, are a leading cause of stress and overload for caregivers, and increase rates of hospitalization and early institutionalization for patients with dementia. The clinician should be able to promptly recognize NPI through the use of instruments capable of measuring their frequency and severity to support diagnosis, and to help monitor the treatment of behavioral symptoms. The aims of this review are to describe and update the construct 'MBI' and to revise the reported NPS related to prodromal stages of dementia (MCI and MBI) and dementia stages of Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration.

El trastorno de ansiedad en la urgencia y su relación con los factores desencadenantes desde una perspectiva de género / Anxiety disorder in the emergency and its relationship with trigger factors from a gender perspective

INTRODUCCIÓN Los trastornos de ansiedad tienen una gran importancia socio-sanitaria. Las mujeres son quienes más consultan por esta problemática, en particular por crisis de angustia, en las guardias de los hospitales generales. OBJETIVOS Identificar, describir y analizar los factores desencadenantes de la demanda de atención en un servicio de urgencia de un hospital general, poniendo el eje en las mujeres que consultan por un episodio de trastorno de ansiedad. MÉTODOS Se realizó un estudio exploratorio descriptivo en pacientes de género femenino que habían consultado por trastorno de ansiedad en la guardia del Hospital General de Agudos Dr. Abel Zubizarreta. La investigación incluyó una entrevista semidirigida y la administración de escalas para evaluar ansiedad y depresión. RESULTADOS De los 980 pacientes atendidos por los equipos de salud mental, 164 habían consultado por crisis de angustia; 114 eran mujeres, y 40 de ellas participaron de esta investigación. El 85% presentaba un grado de ansiedad mayor a la medida. El 69% de las pacientes consideró como factor desencadenante de la consulta en la guardia a la sintomatología física, y el 31%, al cuadro de angustia. El principal motivo causante de la angustia fueron las conflictivas familiares, seguidas de situaciones de violencia basadas en género. DISCUSIÓN La mayoría de las mujeres atendidas consideran que lo somático es el factor desencadenante de la consulta. Esto revela la importancia de establecer prácticas de asistencia en la urgencia del orden de la salud mental, que permitan la detección tanto de problemáticas que todavía no se presentan como un cuadro clínico conformado como de situaciones de violencia basada en género.

Insurance status and demographic and clinical factors associated with pharmacologic treatment of depression: associations in a cohort in Buenos Aires.

OBJECTIVE: There is a paucity of evidence about insurance status and the likelihood of receiving medical services in Latin America. The objective of this analysis was to examine the association between insurance status and pharmacologic treatment for depression. METHODS: Patients referred to a memory clinic of a public hospital in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and identified with any of four types of depression (subsyndromal, dysthymia, major, and due to dementia) were included. Age, years of education, insurance status, Beck Depression Inventory score, and number of comorbidities were considered. Associations between these factors and not receiving pharmacologic treatment for depression were examined with logistic regression. Use of prescription neuroleptics, hypnotics, and anticholinesterase inhibitors was also explored. RESULTS: Out of 100 patients, 92 with insurance status data were used. Sixty-one patients (66%) had formal insurance and 31 patients (34%) lacked insurance. Twenty-seven (44%) insured patients and 23 (74%) uninsured patients did not receive antidepressants (P = 0.001). Controlling for other factors, uninsured patients had 7.12 higher odds of not receiving treatment compared to insured patients (95% confidence interval 1.88-28.86). Older patients and those with more comorbidities had higher odds of not receiving treatment. More educated patients, those with higher Beck Depression Inventory score, and those without subsyndromal depression had lower odds of not receiving treatment. None of those associations were statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest a potential negative effect of the lack of formal insurance regarding pharmacologic treatment for depression. These findings should be confirmed with larger samples, and for other diseases.

Clinical manifestations of geriatric depression in a memory clinic: toward a proposed subtyping of geriatric depression.

BACKGROUND: As the older population increases so does the number of older psychiatric patients. Elderly psychiatric patients manifest certain specific and unique characteristics. Different subtypes of depressive syndromes exist in late-life depression, and many of these are associated with cognitive impairment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 109 depressive patients and 30 normal subjects matched by age and educational level were evaluated using a neuropsychiatric interview and an extensive neuropsychological battery. Depressive patients were classified into four different groups by SCAN 2.1 (schedules for clinical assessment in Neuropsychiatry): major depression disorder (n: 34), dysthymia disorder (n: 29), subsyndromal depression (n: 28), and depression due to mild dementia of Alzheimer's type (n: 18). RESULTS: We found significant associations (p<.05) between depressive status and demographic or clinical factors that include marital status (OR: 3.4, CI: 1.2-9.6), level of daily activity (OR: 5.3, CI: 2-14), heart disease (OR: 12.5, CI: 1.6-96.3), and high blood cholesterol levels (p:.032). Neuropsychological differences were observed among the four depressive groups and also between depressive patients and controls. Significant differences were observed in daily life activities and caregivers' burden between depressive patients and normal subjects. CONCLUSION: Geriatric depression is associated with heart disease, high cholesterol blood levels, marital status, and daily inactivity. Different subtypes of geriatric depression have particular clinical features, such as cognitive profiles, daily life activities, and caregivers' burden, that can help to differentiate among them. LIMITATIONS: The cohort referred to a memory clinic with memory complaints is a biased sample, and the results cannot be generalized to other non-memory symptomatic cohorts.

Clinical and economic characteristics associated with direct costs of Alzheimer's, frontotemporal and vascular dementia in Argentina.

BACKGROUND: The economic cost of dementia is high and can be predicted by cognitive and neuropsychiatric profiles. The differential costs of the various subtypes of dementia are unknown in Argentina, and this study therefore aimed to compare these costs. METHODS: Patients with a diagnosis of dementia of Alzheimer-type (DAT), frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and vascular dementia (VaD), and their primary caregivers, were evaluated between 2002 and 2008. RESULTS: 104 patients with dementia (DAT = 44, FTD = 34, VaD = 26) were screened and matched by age and educational level with 29 healthy subjects. Demographic variables showed no significant differences among dementia patients. The annual direct costs were US$4625 for DAT, US$4924 for FTD, and US$5112 for VaD (p > 0.05 between groups). In the post hoc analysis VaD showed higher hospitalization costs than DAT (p < 0.001). VaD exhibited lower medication costs than FTD (p < 0.001). DAT exhibited higher anti-dementia drug costs; FTD had higher psychotropic costs. In the multivariate analysis, depression, activities of daily living, and caregiver burden were correlated with direct costs (r2 = 0.76). CONCLUSIONS: The different dementia types have different costs. Overall, costs increased with the presence of behavioral symptoms, depression and functional impairment of activities of daily living.

[Disinhibition in psychogeriatry: differential diagnosis with frontotemporal dementia]. / Desinhibición en psicogeriatría: diagnóstico diferencial de la demencia fronto-temporal.

Disinhibition is the loss of psychological and physiological inhibition that leads to cognitive and motor impulsivity. The notion of impulsiveness is often linked to the function of the prefrontal cortex, and is usually understood as a lack of response inhibition. In other words, the subject is unable to suppress or withhold a previously rewarding response and the behavior appears impulsive. This has a social impact as disinhibition often affects the human social behavior. The "human social behavior" is how a person behaves properly with other people in a social environment. Frontotemporal Dementia produces changes in patients' behavior that frequently, manifest as disinhibition. Patients' social cognition is impaired and this is one of the key points for early diagnosis. All of these concepts will be review for a better understanding of Frontotemporal Dementia, and therefore, being able to differentiate it from other psychogeriatric disorders.

O custo econômico da doença de Alzheimer: sobrecarga familiar ou da saúde pública? / The economic cost of Alzheimers disease: family or public-health burden?

Alzheimers disease (AD) patients suffer progressive cognitive, behavioral and functional impairment which result in a heavy burden to patients, families, and the public-health system. AD entails both direct and indirect costs. Indirect costs (such as loss or reduction of income by the patient or family members) are the most important costs in early and community-dwelling AD patients. Direct costs (such as medical treatment or social services) increase when the disorder progresses, and the patient is institutionalized or a formal caregiver is required. Drug therapies represent an increase in direct cost but can reduce some other direct or indirect costs involved. Several studies have projected overall savings to society when using drug therapies and all relevant cost are considered, where results depend on specific patient and care setting characteristics. Dementia should be the focus of analysis when public health policies are being devised. South American countries should strengthen their policy and planning capabilities by gathering more local evidence about the burden of AD and how it can be shaped by treatment options.

O paciente com doença de Alzheimer (DA) sofre comprometimento progressivo cognitivo, comportamental e funcional, que resulta numa grande sobrecarga aos pacientes, familiares e à saúde pública. A DA inclui custos diretos e indiretos. Os custos indiretos (como perda ou redução dos ganhos pelo paciente ou membros da família) são os mais importantes custos dos pacientes leves e na comunidade. Os custos diretos (tais como tratamento médico ou serviços sociais) aumentam com a progressão da doença, quando o paciente é institucionalizado ou quando um cuidador formal é requerido. A terapia com drogas representam um aumento nos custos diretos, mas podem reduzir alguns outros custos diretos ou indiretos envolvidos. Vários estudos projetam uma economia global da sociedade quando é usada terapia com drogas e todos os custos relevantes são considerados; e os resultados dependerão de um paciente específico e características do meio envolvido no cuidado. A demência pode ser um assunto de análise quando as políticas de saúde são desenhadas. Os países da América do Sul deveriam fortalecer suas políticas e capacidades de planejamento, pela geração de maiores evidências locais sobre a sobrecarga da DA e como poderia ser norteada pelas opções de tratamento.

[Use and abuse of drugs in cognitive impairment patients]. / Usos y abusos de fármacos en pacientes con deterioro cognitivo.

INTRODUCTION: Irrational use of drugs for the treatment of cognitive impairment can increase health costs in developing countries. OBJECTIVE: to analyze the pattern of drug prescription related to the treatment of patients with dementia and to compare them with the income of patients. PATIENTS: 313 community-based outpatients that seeked medical advice for memory problems, in the Memory Center of Zubizarreta General Hospital (Buenos Aires, Argentina), were prospectively assessed during a period of a year. RESULTS: Patients' mean income was 502.81 "Pesos Argentinos" which is equivalent to US$152 per month (2007). Fourty one point fifty five percent (41.55%) of the patients had dementia, 15.65% psychiatric diseases, 15.01% mild cognitive impairment and 27.79% were normal. Patients received an average of 2.84 drugs/day, 20% of the patients took at least one drug for cognitive impairment (9.85% memantine, 6.38% donepezil and 4% nootropics, cerebral vasodilators or antioxidants), and 39.3% received psychotropic medication (28.11% benzodiazepines and 9.26 % atypical antipsychotics). Twelve point seventy six percent (12.76%) of the patients with mild cognitive impairment were treated with antidementials, 5.74% of normal subjects received antidementials. 4% of patients were exclusively treated with free samples. CONCLUSION: In our sample irrational degree of using antidemential drugs and psychotropic agents was found.

Role of cognitive reserve in progression from mild cognitive Impairment to dementia / Papel da reserva cognitiva na progressão de comprometimento cognitivo leve para demência

Cognitive reserve is the ability to optimize performance through differential recruitment of brain networks, which may reflect the use of alternative cognitive strategies. Objectives: To identify factors related to cognitive reserve associated with progression from mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to degenerative dementia. Methods: A cohort of 239 subjects with MCI (age: 72.2±8.1 years, 58% women, education: 12 years) was assessed and followed for five years (2001 to 2006). Results: In the first year, 13.7% of MCI converted to dementia and 34.7% converted within three years (78.3% converted to Alzheimer dementia). Risk factors for those who converted were education less than 12 years, MMSE score less than 27, Boston naming test score less than 51, IQ (Intelligence Quotient) less than 111, age over 75 years, lack of occupation at retirement, and presence of intrusions in memory recall (all account for 56% of the variability of conversion). Conclusions: MCI patients are a population at high risk for dementia. The study of risk factors (e.g. IQ, education and occupation), particularly those related to cognitive reserve, can contribute important evidence to guide the decision-making process in routine clinical activity and public health policy.

Reserva cognitiva é a habilidade em otimizar o desempenho através do recrutamento de redes neurais, que talvez reflitam o uso de estratégias cognitivas alternativas. Objetivos: Identificar fatores relacionados à reserva cognitiva associados à progressão do comprometimento cognitivo leve (CCL) para demência degenerativa. Métodos: Uma coorte de 239 indivíduos com CCL (idade: 72.2±8.1 anos, 58% mulheres, educação: 12 anos) foram avaliados e seguidos por cinco anos (2001-2006). Resultados: No primeiro ano 13.7% dos CCL converteram para demência e 34.7% em três anos (78.3% converteram para doença de Alzheimer). Os fatores de risco para aqueles que converteram foram: educação menor do que 12 anos, MMSE menor do que 27, teste de Nomeação de Boston menor do que 51, QI (Quociente de Inteligência) menor do que 111, idade superior a 75 anos, falta de ocupação na aposentadoria, e presença de intrusões na memória de evocação (todos contando para 56% da variabilidade de conversão). Conclusões: Pacientes com CCL são uma população de risco para demência. O estudo dos fatores de risco (como QI, educação e ocupação), principalmente, aqueles relacionados à reserva cognitiva podem contribuir para uma evidência importante para o processo de decisões na atividade clínica e na saúde pública.