Prehospital Hemorrhage Control and Treatment by Clinicians: A Joint Position Statement.

Exsanguination remains the leading cause of preventable death among victims of trauma. For adult and pediatric trauma patients in the prehospital phase of care, methods to control hemorrhage and hemostatic resuscitation are described in this joint consensus opinion by the American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma, the American College of Emergency Physicians, and the National Association of EMS Physicians.

Neurosurgical Mission to Ukraine.

Ukrainian health care before 2021 was like that in comparable middle-income countries. The conflict with Russia over the last 8 months has added significant burden to the already resource-constrained system. We describe the current neurosurgical situation in Ukraine as well as remote and in-person efforts to provide needed assistance to Ukrainian neurosurgical colleagues.

The patient's voice matters: The impact of advance directives on elderly trauma patients.

BACKGROUND: Geriatric trauma rates are increasing, yet trauma centers often struggle to provide autonomy regarding decision making to these patients. Advance care planning can assist with this process. Currently, there are limited data on the impact of advance directives (ADs) in elderly trauma patients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of preinjury AD in geriatric trauma patients and its impact on outcomes, with the hypothesis that ADs would not be associated with an increase in mortality. METHODS: A multicenter retrospective review was conducted on patients older than 65 years with traumatic injury between 2017 and 2019. Three Level I trauma centers and one Level II trauma center were included. Exclusion criteria were readmission, burn injury, transfer to another facility, discharge from emergency department, and mortality prior to being admitted. RESULTS: There were 6,135 patients identified; 751 (12.2%) had a preinjury AD. Patients in the AD+ group were older (86 vs. 77 years, p < 0.0001), more likely to be women (67.0% vs. 54.8%, p < 0.0001), and had more comorbidities. Hospital length of stay and ventilator days were similar. In-hospital mortality occurred in 236 patients, and 75.4% of them underwent withdrawal of care (WOC). The mortality rate was higher in AD+ group (10.5% vs. 2.9%, p < 0.0001). No difference was seen in the rate of AD between the WOC+ and WOC- group (31.5% vs. 39.6%, p = 0.251). A preinjury AD was identified as an independent predictor of mortality, but not a predictor of WOC. CONCLUSION: Despite a high WOC rate in patients older than 65 years, most patients did not have an AD prior to injury. As the elderly trauma population grows, advance care planning should be better integrated into geriatric care to encourage a patient-centered approach to end-of-life care. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic and epidemiological, level IV.

Whole Blood Versus Conventional Blood Component Massive Transfusion Protocol Therapy in Civilian Trauma Patients.

BACKGROUND: Military data demonstrating an improved survival rate with whole blood (WB) have led to a shift toward the use of WB in civilian trauma. The purpose of this study is to compare a low-titer group O WB (LTOWB) massive transfusion protocol (MTP) to conventional blood component therapy (BCT) MTP in civilian trauma patients. METHODS: Trauma patients 15 years or older who had MTP activations from February 2019 to December 2020 were included. Patients with a LTOWB MTP activation were compared to BCT MTP patients from a historic cohort. RESULTS: 299 patients were identified, 169 received LTOWB and 130 received BCT. There were no differences in age, gender, or injury type. The Injury Severity Score was higher in the BCT group (27 vs 25, P = .006). The LTOWB group had a longer transport time (33 min vs 26 min, P < .001) and a lower arrival temperature (35.8 vs 36.1, P < .001). Other hemodynamic parameters were similar between the groups. The LTOWB group had a lower in-hospital mortality rate compared to the BCT group (19.5% vs 30.0%, P = .035). There were no differences in total transfusion volumes at 4 hours and 24 hours. No differences were seen in transfusion reactions or hospital complications. Multivariable logistic regression identified ISS, age, and 24-hour transfusion volume as predictors of mortality. DISCUSSION: Resuscitating severely injured trauma patient with LTOWB is safe and may be associated with an improved survival.

The Use of Tranexamic Acid in Tactical Combat Casualty Care: TCCC Proposed Change 20-02.

The literature continues to provide strong support for the early use of tranexamic acid (TXA) in severely injured trauma patients. Questions persist, however, regarding the optimal medical and tactical/logistical use, timing, and dose of this medication, both from the published TXA literature and from the TCCC user community. The use of TXA has been explored outside of trauma, new dosing strategies have been pursued, and expansion of retrospective use data has grown as well. These questions emphasize the need for a reexamination of TXA by the CoTCCC. The most significant updates to the TCCC Guidelines are (i) including significant traumatic brain injury (TBI) as an indication for TXA, (ii) changing the dosing protocol to a single 2g IV/IO administration, and (iii) recommending TXA administration via slow IV/IO push.

A modern, multicenter evaluation of hepatic angioembolization - Complications and readmissions persist.

BACKGROUND: Indications for angioembolization (AE) following liver injury are not clearly defined. This study evaluated the outcomes and complications of hepatic AE. We hypothesize hepatic angioembolization is a useful adjunct to non-operative management of liver injury but with significant morbidity. METHODS: Subjects were identified utilizing trauma registries from centers in a regional trauma network from 2010 to 2017 with an Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) coded hepatic injury and an ICD9/10 for hepatic angiography (HA). RESULTS: 1319 patients with liver injuries were identified, with 30 (2.3%) patients undergoing HA: median ISS was 26, and median liver AIS was 4. Twenty-three subjects required AE. 81% had extravasation on CT from a liver injury. 63% underwent HA as initial intervention. 43% of AE subjects had liver-related complications with 35% 30-day readmission but with zero 30-day mortality. CONCLUSIONS: While there were zero reported deaths, a high rate of morbidity and readmission was found. This may be due to the angioembolization or the liver injury itself.

Advanced Resuscitative Care in Tactical Combat Casualty Care: TCCC Guidelines Change 18-01:14 October 2018.

TCCC has previously recommended interventions that can effectively prevent 4 of the top 5 causes of prehospital preventable death in combat casualties-extremity hemorrhage, junctional hemorrhage, airway obstruction, and tension pneumothorax- and deaths from these causes have been markedly reduced in US combat casualties. Noncompressible torso hemorrhage (NCTH) is the last remaining major cause of preventable death on the battlefield and often causes death within 30 minutes of wounding. Increased use of whole blood, including the capability for massive transfusion, if indicated, has the potential to increase survival in casualties with either thoracic and/or abdominopelvic hemorrhage. Additionally, Zone 1 Resuscitative Endovascular Balloon Occlusion of the Aorta (REBOA) can provide temporary control of bleeding in the abdomen and pelvis and improve hemodynamics in casualties who may be approaching traumatic cardiac arrest as a result of hemorrhagic shock. Together, these two interventions are designated Advanced Resuscitative Care (ARC) and may enable casualties with severe NCTH to survive long enough to reach the care of a surgeon. Although Special Operations units are now using whole blood far-forward, this capability is not routinely present in other US combat units at this point in time. REBOA is not envisioned as care that could be accomplished by a unit medic working out of his or her aid bag. This intervention should be undertaken only by designated teams of advanced combat medical personnel with special training and equipment.

Management of Suspected Tension Pneumothorax in Tactical Combat Casualty Care: TCCC Guidelines Change 17-02.

This change to the Tactical Combat Casualty Care (TCCC) Guidelines that updates the recommendations for management of suspected tension pneumothorax for combat casualties in the prehospital setting does the following things: (1) Continues the aggressive approach to suspecting and treating tension pneumothorax based on mechanism of injury and respiratory distress that TCCC has advocated for in the past, as opposed to waiting until shock develops as a result of the tension pneumothorax before treating. The new wording does, however, emphasize that shock and cardiac arrest may ensue if the tension pneumothorax is not treated promptly. (2) Adds additional emphasis to the importance of the current TCCC recommendation to perform needle decompression (NDC) on both sides of the chest on a combat casualty with torso trauma who suffers a traumatic cardiac arrest before reaching a medical treatment facility. (3) Adds a 10-gauge, 3.25-in needle/ catheter unit as an alternative to the previously recommended 14-gauge, 3.25-in needle/catheter unit as recommended devices for needle decompression. (4) Designates the location at which NDC should be performed as either the lateral site (fifth intercostal space [ICS] at the anterior axillary line [AAL]) or the anterior site (second ICS at the midclavicular line [MCL]). For the reasons enumerated in the body of the change report, participants on the 14 December 2017 TCCC Working Group teleconference favored including both potential sites for NDC without specifying a preferred site. (5) Adds two key elements to the description of the NDC procedure: insert the needle/ catheter unit at a perpendicular angle to the chest wall all the way to the hub, then hold the needle/catheter unit in place for 5 to 10 seconds before removing the needle in order to allow for full decompression of the pleural space to occur. (6) Defines what constitutes a successful NDC, using specific metrics such as: an observed hiss of air escaping from the chest during the NDC procedure; a decrease in respiratory distress; an increase in hemoglobin oxygen saturation; and/or an improvement in signs of shock that may be present. (7) Recommends that only two needle decompressions be attempted before continuing on to the "Circulation" portion of the TCCC Guidelines. After two NDCs have been performed, the combat medical provider should proceed to the fourth element in the "MARCH" algorithm and evaluate/treat the casualty for shock as outlined in the Circulation section of the TCCC Guidelines. Eastridge's landmark 2012 report documented that noncompressible hemorrhage caused many more combat fatalities than tension pneumothorax.1 Since the manifestations of hemorrhagic shock and shock from tension pneumothorax may be similar, the TCCC Guidelines now recommend proceeding to treatment for hemorrhagic shock (when present) after two NDCs have been performed. (8) Adds a paragraph to the end of the Circulation section of the TCCC Guidelines that calls for consideration of untreated tension pneumothorax as a potential cause for shock that has not responded to fluid resuscitation. This is an important aspect of treating shock in combat casualties that was not presently addressed in the TCCC Guidelines. (9) Adds finger thoracostomy (simple thoracostomy) and chest tubes as additional treatment options to treat suspected tension pneumothorax when further treatment is deemed necessary after two unsuccessful NDC attempts-if the combat medical provider has the skills, experience, and authorizations to perform these advanced interventions and the casualty is in shock. These two more invasive procedures are recommended only when the casualty is in refractory shock, not as the initial treatment.

Tranexamic Acid Use in Prehospital Uncontrolled Hemorrhage.

The use of tranexamic acid (TXA) in the treatment of trauma patients was relatively unexplored until the landmark Clinical Randomisation of an Antifibrinolytic in Significant Haemorrhage-2 (CRASH-2) trial in 2010 demonstrated a reduction in mortality with the use of TXA. Although this trial was a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study incorporating >20,000 patients, numerous limitations and weaknesses have been described. As a result, additional studies have followed, delineating the potential risks and benefits of TXA administration. A systematic review of the literature to date reveals a mortality benefit of early (ideally <1 hour and no later than 3 hours after injury) TXA administration in the treatment of severely injured trauma patients (systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg, heart rate >110). Combined with abundant literature showing a reduction in bleeding in elective surgery, the most significant benefit may be administration of TXA before the patient goes into shock. Those trials that failed to show a mortality benefit of TXA in the treatment of hemorrhagic shock acknowledged that most patients received blood products before TXA administration, thus confounding the results. Although the use of prehospital TXA in the severely injured trauma patient will become more clear with the trauma studies currently underway, the current literature supports the use of prehospital TXA in this high-risk population. We recommend considering a 1 g TXA bolus en route to definitive care in high-risk patients and withholding subsequent doses until hyperfibrinolysis is confirmed by thromboelastography.

Managing Traumatic Brain Injury: Translating Military Guidelines to the Wilderness.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common injury on the battlefield. Much of what medics do to manage these injuries on the battlefield can be translated to other austere environments, such as wilderness or disaster settings. The recognition and diagnosis of TBI can be difficult even in the hospital, but basic understanding of how to define a TBI and prevent secondary injuries can be accomplished with relatively few resources and little training. This article outlines what a TBI is and how to manage it in the field.

What If I Don't Have Blood? Hextend is Superior to 3% Saline in an Experimental Model of Far Forward Resuscitation After Hemorrhage.

INTRODUCTION: Hypertonic crystalloid solutions, colloids, and fresh whole blood (FWB) have all been proposed for prehospital resuscitation after hemorrhage. However, there are no direct comparisons of the efficacy of these different fluids. We compared Hextend, 3% hypertonic saline (HS), and FWB in a porcine model of hemorrhagic shock. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Female swine (n = 5/group) underwent splenectomy and pressure-controlled hemorrhage followed by resuscitation with Hextend, 3% HS, or FWB. They were maintained at a target mean arterial pressure (MAP) for 4 h, holding or infusing fluid as necessary. Sham animals for comparison underwent splenectomy alone. RESULTS: The mean volume required to maintain target MAP was significantly higher for 3% HS (1,016 ±â€Š386 mL) than for Hextend (346 ±â€Š299 mL, P < 0.05). After 4 h of resuscitation, the MAP in the 3% HS group (44 ±â€Š3 mmHg) was significantly lower than shams (56 ±â€Š7 mmHg, P < 0.05). Three percent HS recipients had a significantly worse metabolic acidosis and anemia than shams or FWB recipients, as well as significant increases in serum sodium and chloride. Serum interleukin-6 was significantly elevated in 3% HS and FWB recipients relative to Hextend recipients (105.3 ±â€Š58.6 and 97.2 ±â€Š21 vs. 38.6 ±â€Š27.1 pcg/mL, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: HS performed inferiorly to Hextend as a volume expanding resuscitative fluid after hemorrhage. On the basis of our data, we would recommend the use of Hextend over 3% saline in far forward resuscitation after hemorrhage.

Oxygen requirement to reverse altitude-induced hypoxemia with continuous flow and pulsed dose oxygen.

BACKGROUND: Hypoxemia secondary to reduced barometric pressure is a complication of ascent to altitude. We designed a study to compare the reversal of hypobaric hypoxemia at 14,000 ft with continuous flow oxygen from a cylinder and pulsed dose oxygen from a portable concentrator. METHODS: There were 30 healthy volunteers who were randomized to one of three study groups, placed in an altitude chamber, and ascended to 14,000 ft. There were 10 subjects in each study group. Subjects breathed room air for 10 min to induce hypoxemia. Oxygen was then delivered via a nasal cannula from a cylinder at 1, 2, or 3 lpm of continuous flow for 10 min. The subjects again breathed room air at altitude for 10 min and were then placed on pulsed dose oxygen and titrated to obtain the continuous flow Spo2 equivalent. Spo2, Etco2, RR, HR, Hgb, and tissue oxygenation (Sto2) were continuously recorded. RESULTS: The 1-lpm group's Spo2 range was 89-99%. The 2-lpm group's Spo2 range was 95-98%, and the 3-lpm group's Spo2 range was 95-99%. The 2-lpm and 3-lpm flows were able to correct hypoxemia in every subject. The mean pulsed dose required to achieve an equivalent Spo2 ranged from 36.8 ml ± 18.9 ml in the 1-lpm arm, and 102.4 ml ± 53.8 in the 3-lpm arm. CONCLUSIONS: Portable oxygen concentrators using pulsed dose technology corrected hypoxemia in every subject. Oxygen concentrators may be an alternative to liquid oxygen or cylinders for use during aeromedical evacuation.

Fluid Resuscitation for Hemorrhagic Shock in Tactical Combat Casualty Care: TCCC Guidelines Change 14-01--2 June 2014.

This report reviews the recent literature on fluid resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock and considers the applicability of this evidence for use in resuscitation of combat casualties in the prehospital Tactical Combat Casualty Care (TCCC) environment. A number of changes to the TCCC Guidelines are incorporated: (1) dried plasma (DP) is added as an option when other blood components or whole blood are not available; (2) the wording is clarified to emphasize that Hextend is a less desirable option than whole blood, blood components, or DP and should be used only when these preferred options are not available; (3) the use of blood products in certain Tactical Field Care (TFC) settings where this option might be feasible (ships, mounted patrols) is discussed; (4) 1:1:1 damage control resuscitation (DCR) is preferred to 1:1 DCR when platelets are available as well as plasma and red cells; and (5) the 30-minute wait between increments of resuscitation fluid administered to achieve clinical improvement or target blood pressure (BP) has been eliminated. Also included is an order of precedence for resuscitation fluid options. Maintained as recommendations are an emphasis on hypotensive resuscitation in order to minimize (1) interference with the body's hemostatic response and (2) the risk of complications of overresuscitation. Hextend is retained as the preferred option over crystalloids when blood products are not available because of its smaller volume and the potential for long evacuations in the military setting.

Pulsed dosed delivery of oxygen in mechanically ventilated pigs with acute lung injury.

BACKGROUND: Acute lung injury (ALI) is a condition that leads to impaired oxygen delivery. We demonstrated previously that using a portable oxygen concentrator (POC) with pulsed dose delivery of oxygen is an alternative option to conserve oxygen while still maintaining adequate oxygen delivery in a mechanical model. We hypothesized that using a modified POC, pulsed dose oxygen delivery can provide adequate oxygenation in an animal model. METHODS: In a crossover study, we induced ALI in 15 pigs using an oleic acid model. We ventilated the pigs using equipment that is used by Critical Care Air Transport Teams of the US Air Force. We compared oxygen delivery using a POC in both continuous flow and pulsed dose modes, while in both volume-control and pressure-control mechanical ventilation. RESULTS: The PaO(2)/FIO(2) ratios were increased in both the continuous flow and pulsed dose delivery for volume control and pressure control. In volume control, the pulsed dose demonstrated a significant increase in the PaO(2)/FIO(2) ratio (168.8 [96.1] vs. 91.7 [65.4], p = 0.002) compared with continuous flow. However, this was not seen in pressure-control ventilation (89.0 [74.5] vs. 79.1 [65.4], p = 0.67). CONCLUSION: We were able to demonstrate that oxygen delivery using a POC in mechanically ventilated pigs with ALI is feasible. We were also able to demonstrate that pulsed dose delivery from a POC is superior to continuous flow oxygen delivery for oxygenation in ALI, when using volume control. We propose that this is a safe alternative to conserve oxygen in the transport of critically ill patients.

Implementation of a military-derived damage-control resuscitation strategy in a civilian trauma center decreases acute hypoxia in massively transfused patients.

BACKGROUND: Recent military experience supports a paradigm shift in shock resuscitation to damage-control resuscitation (DCR), which emphasizes a plasma-rich and crystalloid-poor approach to resuscitation. The effect of DCR on hypoxia after massive transfusion is unknown. We hypothesized that implementation of a military-derived DCR strategy in a civilian setting would lead to decreased acute hypoxia. METHODS: A DCR strategy was implemented in 2007. We retrospectively reviewed patients receiving trauma surgeon operative intervention and 10 or more units of packed red blood cells (pRBCs) within 24 hours of injury at an adult Level I trauma center from 2001 to 2010. Demographic data, blood requirements, and PaO2/FIO2 ratios were analyzed. To evaluate evolving resuscitation strategies, we fit linear trend models to continuous variables and tested their slopes for statistical significance. RESULTS: Two hundred sixteen patients met the study criteria, with a mean age of 35 ± 1.1 years and Injury Severity Score (ISS) of 31 ± 9.0. Of the patients, 80% were male, and 52% sustained penetrating injuries. Overall mortality was 32%. Overall mean pRBC and fresh frozen plasma (FFP) units infused in 24 hours were 23.2 ± 1.1 and 18.6 ± 1.1, respectively. Trends for patient age, sex, mechanism of injury, ISS, highest positive end-expiratory pressure, and mean total pRBC transfused over 24 hours were not statistically different from zero. An increasing trend in FFP and platelets transfused during the first 24 hours (p < 0.0001, p = 0.04, respectively) and a decrease in the pRBC/FFP ratio (p < 0.0001) were found. The amount of crystalloid infused during the initial 24 hours decreased with time (p < 0.0001). The lowest PaO2/FIO2 ratio recorded during the initial 24 hours increased during the study period (p = 0.01), indicating a statistically significant reduction in hypoxia. CONCLUSION: A military-derived DCR strategy can be implemented in the civilian setting. DCR led to significant increases in FFP transfusion, decreases in crystalloid use, and acute hypoxia.

Tranexamic acid and trauma: current status and knowledge gaps with recommended research priorities.

A recent large civilian randomized controlled trial on the use of tranexamic acid (TXA) for trauma reported important survival benefits. Subsequently, successful use of TXA for combat casualties in Afghanistan was also reported. As a result of these promising studies, there has been growing interest in the use of TXA for trauma. Potential adverse effects of TXA have also been reported. A US Department of Defense committee conducted a review and assessment of knowledge gaps and research requirements regarding the use of TXA for the treatment of casualties that have experienced traumatic hemorrhage. We present identified knowledge gaps and associated research priorities. We believe that important knowledge gaps exist and that a targeted, prioritized research effort will contribute to the refinement of practice guidelines over time.

Military trauma training at civilian centers: a decade of advancements.

In the late 1990s, a Department of Defense subcommittee screened more than 100 civilian trauma centers according to the number of admissions, percentage of penetrating trauma, and institutional interest in relation to the specific training missions of each of the three service branches. By the end of 2001, the Army started a program at University of Miami/Ryder Trauma Center, the Navy began a similar program at University of Southern California/Los Angeles County Medical Center, and the Air Force initiated three Centers for the Sustainment of Trauma and Readiness Skills (C-STARS) at busy academic medical centers: R. Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center at the University of Maryland (C-STARS Baltimore), Saint Louis University (C-STARS St. Louis), and The University Hospital/University of Cincinnati (C-STARS Cincinnati). Each center focuses on three key areas, didactic training, state-of-the-art simulation and expeditionary equipment training, as well as actual clinical experience in the acute management of trauma patients. Each is integral to delivering lifesaving combat casualty care in theater. Initially, there were growing pains and the struggle to develop an effective curriculum in a short period. With the foresight of each trauma training center director and a dynamic exchange of information with civilian trauma leaders and frontline war fighters, there has been a continuous evolution and improvement of each center's curriculum. Now, it is clear that the longest military conflict in US history and the first of the 21st century has led to numerous innovations in cutting edge trauma training on a comprehensive array of topics. This report provides an overview of the decade-long evolutionary process in providing the highest-quality medical care for our injured heroes.