How the type of dairy production system affects the nutrient balance from an environmental and economic perspective.

The knowledge of nutrient flow in dairy farms has to be explored to find optimized strategies for efficient nutrient conversion to milk. This study aims to improve the understanding of variances in nitrogen and phosphorus balance and efficiency indicators between dairy farm systems. The study analyzed 67 dairy cattle farms located in the watershed Lajeado Tacongava, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Selected dairy farms represented three production systems: confined (3 farms); semi-confined (7 farms); pasture-based (57 farms). Input-output nutrient balances were calculated at the dairy system level for nitrogen and phosphorus over a year. Inputs are feed and fertilizer and outputs are milk and meat. The main nitrogen and phosphorus input on the all farms resulted from the feed. The average N and P surplus on pasture-based farms were 352 and 49 kg ha-1 year-1, respectively. In semi-confined systems were 508 and 63 kg ha-1 year-1 and in confined systems were 786 and 70 kg ha-1 year-1. When considering the monetary value of the total N surplus, the averages were US$ 2.615, 4.950, and 12.171 for pasture-based, semi-confined and confined systems respectively. Monetary values of P surplus were US$ 346, 588, and 1119 for pasture-based, semi-confined and confined. The productive aspects that most determined the values of N and P surplus were the total number of lactating cows and the farm area. Results indicate that surplus can partially replace chemical nitrogen fertilizer, except in the confined system, and fully replace phosphorus fertilizer. Confined farms presented values to use surplus as fertilizer greater than the crop demand. For the other production systems, it happens only for phosphorus. Large variability between dairy farms of the same production system and between different production systems was observed. It reflects the inherent productive, economic, and environmental conditions of each farm and system.

Water productivity of milk produced in three different dairy production systems in Southern Brazil.

Water is a crucial resource to produce dairy milk and studies are required to identify opportunities for improvements in water management. This study evaluates the water productivity of milk (WPMilk) produced on 67 farms located in southern Brazil and the influence of dairy cattle production systems (pasture-based, 57 farms; semi-confined, 7 farms; confinement, 3 farms) on water productivity. Indirect and direct water flows were taken into account and the dairy milk was the output. Pasture yield was estimated based on a weighted average. Indirect water represented >98 % of water consumption for milk production on farms assessed. In the pasture-based system, the WPMilk ranged from 0.27 to 1.46 kg FPCM (Fat Protein Corrected Milk) m-3 of water; in the semi-confined system it ranged from 0.59 to 1.1 kg FPCM m-3; in the confined system, it ranged from 0.89 to 1.09 kg FPCM m-3. Results show that 20 farms in the pasture-based system presented higher WPMilk than the maximum WPMilk of farms in the semi-confined system. Comparing outcomes of farms in the confined system with pasture-based system, similar results were observed with higher WPMilk on 22 farms in the pasture-based system. Results indicate that, regardless of the type of production system, water productivity is influenced by the dairy productivity indicators of the farm, such as milk yield and feed components. The large variability in the WPMilk was expected and reflects the inherent attributes and conditions affecting this indicator, which underlines the importance of assessing it on a farm scale. Consequently, achieving high dairy productivity indicators should be encouraged in the pasture-based system due to the environmental, economic and social advantages for the farmer. Results advance the knowledge about water flows and WPMilk in different dairy cattle production systems besides defining the first benchmarks for WPMilk produced on farms in Brazil.

Water use indicators at farm scale - An agro-hydrological software solution.

The challenge to sustainably intensify agricultural production in farming systems in face of the increasing variability in regional water resources requires concerted action from many stakeholders, locally, regionally and globally. Models, such as the AgroHyd Farmmodel presented here, can provide information on how farm management decisions affect local water resources at various scales for use in multiple assessment frameworks. It is a stand-alone web-based software that connects agricultural and water-related systems, including all water flows related to farming systems. Results from a case study of the production of 12 crops with rainfed and supplemental irrigation on a farm in northeastern Germany are described here. Indicators that relate the water use to plant production on the farm such as water intensity or water productivity are compared in detail for three consecutive years with greatly varying annual rainfall amounts (from 373 to 790 mm) to highlight the effect of local variability on water flows and indicator values. The discussion illustrates how information on the effect of management decisions, such as crop type, seeding date, crop rotation, cultivation and irrigation on water use can be processed into indicators to help farmers make more effective decisions.

Irrigation water demand of selected agricultural crops in Germany between 1902 and 2010.

Irrigation water demand (IWD) is increasing worldwide, including in regions such as Germany that are characterized with low precipitation levels, yet grow water-demanding crops such as sugar beets, potatoes, and vegetables. This study aimed to calculate and analyze the spatial and temporal changes in the IWD of four crops-spring barley, oat, winter wheat, and potato-between 1902 and 2010 in Germany by using the modeling software AgroHyd Farmmodel. Climatic conditions in Germany continued to change over the investigation period, with an increase in temperature of 0.01K/yr and an increase in precipitation of 1mm/yr. Nevertheless, no significant increasing or decreasing trend in IWD was noted in the analysis. The IWD for the investigated crops in the area of the current "Federal Republic of Germany" over the 109years was 112mm/yr, varying between 100 and 127mm/yr. Changes in cropping pattern and cultivated area over the last century caused large differences in the IWD calculated for each administrative district. The mean annual IWD of over the study period (which was divided into 4 parts) varied between 13,455Mm(3)/yr in the earliest period (1902-1919) and 4717Mm(3)/yr in the latest period (1990-2010). Policy and management measures to adapt to climate change are currently being debated in Germany. The presented results suggest that the effects of the choice of crops (in this case, changes in cropping pattern in the German nation states) had a stronger influence on regional water resources than those of climate variability. Thus, the influence of climate change on water resources is relativized which brings an important input into the debate.