Are U-U Bonds Inside Fullerenes Really Unwilling Bonds?

Previous characterizations of diactinide endohedral metallofullerenes (EMFs) Th2@C80 and U2@C80 have shown that although the two Th3+ ions form a strong covalent bond within the carbon cage, the interaction between the U3+ ions is weaker and described as an "unwilling" bond. To evaluate the feasibility of covalent U-U bonds, which are neglected in classical actinide chemistry, we have first investigated the formation of smaller diuranium EMFs by laser ablation using mass spectrometric detection of dimetallic U2@C2n species with 2n ≥ 50. DFT, CASPT2 calculations, and MD simulations for several fullerenes of different sizes and symmetries showed that thanks to the formation of strong U(5f3)-U(5f3) triple bonds, two U3+ ions can be incarcerated inside the fullerene. The formation of U-U bonds competes with U-cage interactions that tend to separate the U ions, hindering the observation of short U-U distances in the crystalline structures of diuranium endofullerenes as in U2@C80. Smaller cages like C60 exhibit the two interactions, and a strong triple U-U bond with an effective bond order higher than 2 is observed. Although 5f-5f interactions are responsible for the covalent interactions at distances close to 2.5 Å, overlap between 7s6d orbitals is still detected above 4 Å. In general, metal ions within fullerenes should be regarded as templates in cage formation, not as statistically confined units that have little chance of being observed.

Dicyanometalates as Building Blocks for Multinuclear Iron(II) Spin-Crossover Complexes.

A synthetic strategy featuring dicyanometalates [M(CN)2]- (M = Ag, Au) as N-coordinating ditopic linkers connecting partially blocked FeII centers has been employed to produce heterometallic hexanuclear complexes, which exhibit spin-crossover (SCO) behavior at the FeII sites. The reaction between tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine (tpma)-capped FeII ions and [Ag(CN)2]- proceeded with partial decomposition of the dicyanoargentate and led to the formation of {[Fe(tpma)]4(µ-CN)2[µ-Ag(CN)2]2}(ClO4)4·3H2O (1), in which both [Ag(CN)2]- and CN- act as bridging ligands, and the opposite [Ag(CN)2]- bridges are engaged in a pronounced argentophilic d10-d10 interaction. In an analogous synthesis, the more stable [Au(CN)2]- species remained intact and furnished the complex {[Fe(tpma)]2[µ-Au2(CN)4]2} (2), which features two FeII centers bridged by two [Au2(CN)4]2- dimers. The use of S,S'-bis(2-pyridylmethyl)-1,2-thioethane (bpte) as a mixed-donor, N2S2-coordinating capping ligand yielded {[Fe(bpte)]2[µ-Au2(CN)4]2} (3), with a structure analogous to that of 2. Variable-temperature magnetic susceptibility measurements revealed that complexes 1-3 exhibit an onset of SCO above 350 K. Measurements above 400 K further confirmed the occurrence of a gradual spin-state conversion for complex 2.

Transformation of doped graphite into cluster-encapsulated fullerene cages.

An ultimate goal in carbon nanoscience is to decipher formation mechanisms of highly ordered systems. Here, we disclose chemical processes that result in formation of high-symmetry clusterfullerenes, which attract interest for use in applications that span biomedicine to molecular electronics. The conversion of doped graphite into a C80 cage is shown to occur through bottom-up self-assembly reactions. Unlike conventional forms of fullerene, the iconic Buckminsterfullerene cage, I h-C60, is entirely avoided in the bottom-up formation mechanism to afford synthesis of group 3-based metallic nitride clusterfullerenes. The effects of structural motifs and cluster-cage interactions on formation of compounds in the solvent-extractable C70-C100 region are determined by in situ studies of defined clusterfullerenes under typical synthetic conditions. This work establishes the molecular origin and mechanism that underlie formation of unique carbon cage materials, which may be used as a benchmark to guide future nanocarbon explorations.

Regiochemically Controlled Synthesis of a ß-4-ß' [70]Fullerene Bis-Adduct.

A ß-4-ß' C70 bis-adduct regioisomer and an uncommon mono-adduct ß-malonate C70 derivative were synthesized by using a Diels-Alder cycloaddition followed by an addition-elimination of bromo-ethylmalonate and a retro-Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction. We also report the regioselective synthesis and spectroscopic characterization of Cs-symmetric tris- and C2v-symmetric tetra-adducts of C70, which are the precursors of the mono- and bis-adduct final products.

Small endohedral metallofullerenes: exploration of the structure and growth mechanism in the Ti@C2n (2n = 26-50) family.

The formation of the smallest fullerene, C28, was recently reported using gas phase experiments combined with high-resolution FT-ICR mass spectrometry. An internally located group IV metal stabilizes the highly strained non-IPR C28 cage by charge transfer (IPR = isolated pentagon rule). Ti@C44 also appeared as a prominent peak in the mass spectra, and U@C28 was demonstrated to form by a bottom-up growth mechanism. We report here a computational analysis using standard DFT calculations and Car-Parrinello MD simulations for the family of the titled compounds, aiming to identify the optimal cage for each endohedral fullerene and to unravel key aspects of the intriguing growth mechanisms of fullerenes. We show that all the optimal isomers from C26 to C50 are linked by a simple C2 insertion, with the exception of a few carbon cages that require an additional C2 rearrangement. The ingestion of a C2 unit is always an exergonic/exothermic process that can occur through a rather simple mechanism, with the most energetically demanding step corresponding to the closure of the carbon cage. The large formation abundance observed in mass spectra for Ti@C28 and Ti@C44 can be explained by the special electronic properties of these cages and their higher relative stabilities with respect to C2 reactivity. We further verify that extrusion of C atoms from an already closed fullerene is much more energetically demanding than forming the fullerene by a bottom-up mechanism. Independent of the formation mechanism, the present investigations strongly support that, among all the possible isomers, the most stable, smaller non-IPR carbon cages are formed, a conclusion that is also valid for medium and large cages.

Bottom-up formation of endohedral mono-metallofullerenes is directed by charge transfer.

An understanding of chemical formation mechanisms is essential to achieve effective yields and targeted products. One of the most challenging endeavors is synthesis of molecular nanocarbon. Endohedral metallofullerenes are of particular interest because of their unique properties that offer promise in a variety of applications. Nevertheless, the mechanism of formation from metal-doped graphite has largely eluded experimental study, because harsh synthetic methods are required to obtain them. Here we report bottom-up formation of mono-metallofullerenes under core synthesis conditions. Charge transfer is a principal factor that guides formation, discovered by study of metallofullerene formation with virtually all available elements of the periodic table. These results could enable production strategies that overcome long-standing problems that hinder current and future applications of metallofullerenes.

Spin crossover in tetranuclear Fe(II) complexes, {[(tpma)Fe(µ-CN)]4}X4 (X = ClO4(-), BF4(-)).

Two Fe(II) complexes, {[(tpma)Fe(µ-CN)]4}X4 (X = ClO4(-) (1a), BF4(-) (1b); tpma = tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine), were prepared by reacting the {Fe(tpma)}(2+) building block with (Bu4N)CN. The crystal structures of 1a and 1b feature a tetranuclear cation composed of cyanide-bridged Fe(II) ions, each capped with a tetradentate tpma ligand. The Fe4(µ-CN)4 core of the complex is strongly distorted, assuming a butterfly-like geometry. Both complexes exhibit gradual temperature-driven spin crossover (SCO) associated with the high-spin (HS) ↔ low-spin (LS) transition at two out of four metal centers. The evolution of HS and LS Fe(II) ions with temperature was followed by a combination of X-ray crystallography, magnetic measurements, and Mössbauer spectroscopy. Only the Fe(II) ions surrounded by six N atoms undergo the SCO. A comparison of the temperature-dependent SCO curves for the samples stored under solvent and the dried samples shows that the former exhibit a much more abrupt SCO. This finding was interpreted in terms of the increased structural disorder and decreased crystallinity caused by the loss of the interstitial solvent molecules in the dried samples.

Metallofullerene and fullerene formation from condensing carbon gas under conditions of stellar outflows and implication to stardust.

Carbonaceous presolar grains of supernovae origin have long been isolated and are determined to be the carrier of anomalous (22)Ne in ancient meteorites. That exotic (22)Ne is, in fact, the decay isotope of relatively short-lived (22)Na formed by explosive nucleosynthesis, and therefore, a selective and rapid Na physical trapping mechanism must take place during carbon condensation in supernova ejecta. Elucidation of the processes that trap Na and produce large carbon molecules should yield insight into carbon stardust enrichment and formation. Herein, we demonstrate that Na effectively nucleates formation of Na@C60 and other metallofullerenes during carbon condensation under highly energetic conditions in oxygen- and hydrogen-rich environments. Thus, fundamental carbon chemistry that leads to trapping of Na is revealed, and should be directly applicable to gas-phase chemistry involving stellar environments, such as supernova ejecta. The results indicate that, in addition to empty fullerenes, metallofullerenes should be constituents of stellar/circumstellar and interstellar space. In addition, gas-phase reactions of fullerenes with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are investigated to probe "build-up" and formation of carbon stardust, and provide insight into fullerene astrochemistry.

Charge reversal Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry.

We report the first charge reversal experiments performed by tandem-in-time rather than tandem-in-space MS/MS. Precursor odd-electron anions from fullerene C(60), and even-electron ions from 2,7-di-tert-butylfluorene-9-carboxylic acid and 3,3'-bicarbazole were converted into positive product ions ((-)CR(+)) inside the magnet of a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer. Charge reversal was activated by irradiating precursor ions with high energy electrons or UV photons: the first reported use of those activation methods for charge reversal. We suggest that high energy electrons achieve charge reversal in one step as double electron transfer, whereas UV-activated (-)CR(+) takes place stepwise through two single electron transfers and formally corresponds to a neutralization-reionization ((-)NR(+)) experiment.

Formation of heterofullerenes by direct exposure of C60 to boron vapor.

Introducing boron: heterofullerenes that incorporate boron have been scarcely studied because a formation route from C(60) is not known. It is now reported that C(59)B(-), an electronically closed-shell species, is formed directly from pristine C(60) in the gas-phase by facile atom exchange reactions.

Closed network growth of fullerenes.

Tremendous advances in nanoscience have been made since the discovery of the fullerenes; however, the formation of these carbon-caged nanomaterials still remains a mystery. Here we reveal that fullerenes self-assemble through a closed network growth mechanism by incorporation of atomic carbon and C(2). The growth processes have been elucidated through experiments that probe direct growth of fullerenes upon exposure to carbon vapour, analysed by state-of-the-art Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. Our results shed new light on the fundamental processes that govern self-assembly of carbon networks, and the processes that we reveal in this study of fullerene growth are likely be involved in the formation of other carbon nanostructures from carbon vapour, such as nanotubes and graphene. Further, the results should be of importance for illuminating astrophysical processes near carbon stars or supernovae that result in C(60) formation throughout the Universe.

The smallest stable fullerene, M@C28 (m = Ti, Zr, U): stabilization and growth from carbon vapor.

The smallest fullerene to form in condensing carbon vapor has received considerable interest since the discovery of Buckminsterfullerene, C(60). Smaller fullerenes remain a largely unexplored class of all-carbon molecules that are predicted to exhibit fascinating properties due to the large degree of curvature and resulting highly pyramidalized carbon atoms in their structures. However, that curvature also renders the smallest fullerenes highly reactive, making them difficult to detect experimentally. Gas-phase attempts to investigate the smallest fullerene by stabilization through cage encapsulation of a metal have been hindered by the complexity of mass spectra that result from vaporization experiments which include non-fullerene clusters, empty cages, and metallofullerenes. We use high-resolution FT-ICR mass spectrometry to overcome that problem and investigate formation of the smallest fullerene by use of a pulsed laser vaporization cluster source. Here, we report that the C(28) fullerene stabilized by encapsulation with an appropriate metal forms directly from carbon vapor as the smallest fullerene under our conditions. Its stabilization is investigated, and we show that M@C(28) is formed by a bottom-up growth mechanism and is a precursor to larger metallofullerenes. In fact, it appears that the encapsulating metal species may catalyze or nucleate endohedral fullerene formation.