Validation of the Diet Satisfaction Questionnaire: a new measure of satisfaction with diets for weight management.

OBJECTIVE: The Diet Satisfaction Questionnaire was developed to fill the need for a validated measure to evaluate satisfaction with weight-management diets. This paper further develops the questionnaire, examining the factor structure of the original questionnaire, cross-validating a revised version in a second sample and relating diet satisfaction to weight loss during a 1-year trial. METHODS: The 45-item Diet Satisfaction Questionnaire (DSat-45) uses seven scales to assess characteristics that influence diet satisfaction: Healthy Lifestyle, Convenience, Cost, Family Dynamics, Preoccupation with Food, Negative Aspects, and Planning and Preparation. It was administered five times during a 1-year weight-loss trial (n = 186 women) and once as an online survey in a separate sample (n = 510 adults). Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess and refine the DSat-45 structure, and reliability and validity data were examined in both samples for the revised questionnaire, the DSat-28. Associations were examined between both DSat questionnaires and weight loss in the trial. RESULTS: Internal consistency (reliability) was moderate for the DSat-45. Confirmatory factor analysis showed improved fit for a five-factor structure, resulting in the DSat-28 that retained four of the original scales and a shortened fifth scale. This revised questionnaire was reliable in both samples. Weight loss across the year-long trial was positively related to satisfaction with Healthy Lifestyle, Preoccupation with Food, and Planning and Preparation in both versions of the questionnaire. CONCLUSIONS: Measures of reliability and validity were improved in the more concise DSat-28 compared to the DSat-45. This shorter measure should be used in future work to evaluate satisfaction with weight-management diets.

Investigation of feeding behaviour in C. elegans reveals distinct pharmacological and antibacterial effects of nicotine.

Caenorhabditis elegans is an informative model to study the neural basis of feeding. A useful paradigm is one in which adult nematodes feed on a bacterial lawn which has been pre-loaded with pharmacological agents and the effect on pharyngeal pumping rate scored. A crucial aspect of this assay is the availability of good quality bacteria to stimulate pumping to maximal levels. A potential confound is the possibility that the pharmacological agent impacts bacterial viability and indirectly influences feeding rate. Here, the actions of nicotine on pharyngeal pumping of C. elegans and on the Escherichia coli bacterial food source were investigated. Nicotine caused an immediate and concentration-dependent inhibition of C. elegans pharyngeal pumping, IC50 4 mM (95% CI = 3.4 mM to 4.8 mM). At concentrations between 5 and 25 mM, nicotine also affected the growth and viability of E. coli lawns. To test whether this food depletion by nicotine caused the reduced pumping, we modified the experimental paradigm. We investigated pharyngeal pumping stimulated by 10 mM 5-HT, a food 'mimic', before testing if nicotine still inhibited this behaviour. The IC50 for nicotine in these assays was 2.9 mM (95% CI = 3.1 mM to 5.1 mM) indicating the depletion of food lawn does not underpin the potency of nicotine at inhibiting feeding. These studies show that the inhibitory effect of nicotine on C. elegans pharyngeal pumping is mediated by a direct effect rather than by its poorly reported bactericidal actions.

Stress responses to repeated exposure to a combined physical and social evaluative laboratory stressor in young healthy males.

Repeated exposure to homotypic laboratory psychosocial stressors typically instigates rapid habituation in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis-mediated stress responses in humans. However, emerging evidence suggests the combination of physical stress and social evaluative threat may be sufficient to attenuate this response habituation. Neuroendocrine, cardiovascular and subjective stress responses following repeated exposure to a combined physical and social evaluative stress protocol were assessed to examine the habituation response dynamic in this context. The speech task of the Trier social stress test (TSST; Kirschbaum et al., 1993) and the socially evaluated cold pressor task (SECPT; Schwabe et al., 2008) were administered in a combined stressor protocol. Salivary cortisol, cardiovascular and subjective stress responses to a non-stress control and repeat stressor exposure separated by six weeks were examined in males (N=24) in a crossover manner. Stressor exposure resulted in significant elevations in all stress parameters. In contrast to the commonly reported habituation in cortisol response, a comparable post-stress response was demonstrated. Cortisol, heart rate and subjective stress responses were also characterised by a heightened response in anticipation to repeated stress exposure. Blood pressure responses were comparatively uniform across repeated exposures. Findings suggest a combined physical and social evaluative stressor is a potentially useful method for study designs that require repeated presentation of a homotypic stressor.

No effects of ingesting or rinsing sucrose on depleted self-control performance.

Self-control tasks appear to deplete a limited resource resulting in reduced subsequent self-control performance; a state of ego depletion. Evidence of reduced peripheral glucose by exertion of self-control, and attenuation of ego depletion by carbohydrate metabolism underpins the proposition that this macronutrient provides the energetic source of self-control. However, the demonstration of positive, non-metabolic effects on ego depletion when merely sensing carbohydrates orally contradicts this hypothesis. Recent studies have also failed to support both metabolic and non-metabolic accounts. The effects of ingesting or rinsing a carbohydrate (sucrose) and an artificially sweetened (sucralose) solution on capillary blood and interstitial glucose, and depleted self-control performance were examined in older adults. Forty, healthy, adults (50-65years) ingested and rinsed sucrose and sucralose solutions in a 2 (method)×2 (source), fully counterbalanced, repeated measures, crossover design. Capillary blood and interstitial glucose responses were assayed. Depleted self-control performance (induced by the Bakan visual processing task) on an attention switch task was assessed under each study condition. Ego depletion had no consistent effects on peripheral glucose levels and no significant effects of ingesting or rinsing sucrose on self-control were observed. The act of rinsing the solutions, independent of energetic content, resulted in a small, non-significant enhancement of performance on the attention switch task relative to ingesting the same solutions (RT: p=.05; accuracy: p=.09). In conclusion, a metabolic account of self-control was not supported. Whilst a positive effect of rinsing on depleted self-control performance was demonstrated, this was independent of energetic content. Findings suggest glucose is an unlikely physiological analogue for self-control resources.

A low glycaemic load breakfast can attenuate cognitive impairments observed in middle aged obese females with impaired glucose tolerance.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: There has been no systematic investigation of the individual and combined effects of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and obesity on cognitive function in the absence of ageing. The aims were to examine the effects of IGT and increased waist circumference on cognitive function in ostensibly healthy adults, and to investigate whether a low glycaemic load (GL) breakfast can attenuate cognitive impairments in these populations. METHODS AND RESULTS: Sixty five females aged 30-50 years were classified into one of four groups following waist circumference (WC) measurements and an oral glucose tolerance test: NGT/low WC (n = 25), NGT/high WC (n = 22), IGT/low WC (n = 9), IGT/high WC (n = 9). Memory, psychomotor and executive functions were examined 30 and 120 min after consuming low GL, high GL and water breakfasts according to a randomised, crossover, counterbalanced design. IGT was associated with impairment of verbal and spatial memory, and psychomotor function relative to females with NGT, independent of waist circumference. Increased waist circumference was associated with impairment of verbal memory and executive function relative to females with low WC, independent of IGT. Consumption of the LGL breakfast attenuated verbal memory impairment in the IGT/high WC group relative to the HGL breakfast and no energy control. CONCLUSION: Increased central adiposity and abnormalities in glucose tolerance preceding type 2 diabetes can have demonstrable negative effects on cognitive function, even in ostensibly healthy, middle-aged females. The potential for GL manipulations to modulate glycaemic response and cognitive function in type 2 diabetes and obesity merits further investigation.

Potential benefits of satiety to the consumer: scientific considerations.

Foods and dietary patterns that enhance satiety may provide benefit to consumers. The aim of the present review was to describe, consider and evaluate research on potential benefits of enhanced satiety. The proposal that enhanced satiety could only benefit consumers by a direct effect on food intake should be rejected. Instead, it is proposed that there is a variety of routes through which enhanced satiety could (indirectly) benefit dietary control or weight-management goals. The review highlights specific potential benefits of satiety, including: providing appetite control strategies for consumers generally and for those who are highly responsive to food cues; offering pleasure and satisfaction associated with low-energy/healthier versions of foods without feeling 'deprived'; reducing dysphoric mood associated with hunger especially during energy restriction; and improved compliance with healthy eating or weight-management efforts. There is convincing evidence of short-term satiety benefits, but only probable evidence for longer-term benefits to hunger management, possible evidence of benefits to mood and cognition, inadequate evidence that satiety enhancement can promote weight loss, and no evidence on which consumers would benefit most from satiety enhancement. The appetite-reducing effects of specific foods or diets will be much more subtle than those of pharmaceutical compounds in managing hunger; nevertheless, the experience of pharmacology in producing weight loss via effects on appetite suggests that there is potential benefit of satiety enhancement from foods incorporated into the diet to the consumer.

Exploring stress-induced cognitive impairment in middle aged, centrally obese adults.

Extensive research has shown that psychosocial stress can induce cognitive impairment. However, few studies have explored impairment following acute stress exposure in individuals with central obesity. Central obesity co-occurs with glucocorticoid excess and can lead to elevated cortisol responses to stress. It is not clear whether centrally obese individuals exhibit greater cognitive impairment following acute stress. Cortisol responses to stress versus no-stress control were compared in 66 high- and low waist to hip ratio (WHR) middle-aged adults (mean age of 46 ± 7.17 years). Cognitive performance post exposure was assessed using Cambridge Automated Neuropsychological Test Battery. It was hypothesised that high WHR would exhibit greater cortisol in response to stress exposure and would show poorer cognitive performance. Males, particularly of high WHR, tended to secrete greater cortisol during stress exposure. Exposure to stress and increasing WHR were specifically associated with poorer performance on declarative memory tasks (spatial recognition memory and paired associates learning). These data tentatively suggest a reduction in cognitive performance in those with central obesity following exposure to acute stress. Further research is needed to elucidate the effects of stress on cognition in this population.

Impact of postprandial glycaemia on health and prevention of disease.

Postprandial glucose, together with related hyperinsulinemia and lipidaemia, has been implicated in the development of chronic metabolic diseases like obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). In this review, available evidence is discussed on postprandial glucose in relation to body weight control, the development of oxidative stress, T2DM, and CVD and in maintaining optimal exercise and cognitive performance. There is mechanistic evidence linking postprandial glycaemia or glycaemic variability to the development of these conditions or in the impairment in cognitive and exercise performance. Nevertheless, postprandial glycaemia is interrelated with many other (risk) factors as well as to fasting glucose. In many studies, meal-related glycaemic response is not sufficiently characterized, or the methodology with respect to the description of food or meal composition, or the duration of the measurement of postprandial glycaemia is limited. It is evident that more randomized controlled dietary intervention trials using effective low vs. high glucose response diets are necessary in order to draw more definite conclusions on the role of postprandial glycaemia in relation to health and disease. Also of importance is the evaluation of the potential role of the time course of postprandial glycaemia.

Associations between habitual school-day breakfast consumption, body mass index, physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness in English schoolchildren.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess associations between habitual school-day breakfast consumption, body mass index (BMI), physical activity (PA) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). METHODS: BMI, PA and CRF were measured in 4326 schoolchildren aged 10-16 years. Participants were classified as obese or non-obese, as having low or high PA and CRF. Habitual school-day breakfast consumption was assessed by a questionnaire and classified as never, sometimes or always. RESULTS: Participants who sometimes ate breakfast were more likely to be obese than those who always did (P<0.05). Boys who never ate breakfast were more likely to have low PA odds ratio (OR) 2.17, 95% CI 1.48-3.18) and low CRF (OR 2.02, 95% CI 1.40-2.93) than those who always did. Compared with those who always did so, girls were more likely to have low PA if they sometimes (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.13-1.70) or never (1.48 95% CI 1.06-2.05) ate breakfast, but the likelihood of low CRF was not different between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Habitual breakfast consumption is associated with healthy BMI and higher PA levels in schoolchildren. In boys, regularly eating breakfast is also associated with higher levels of CRF. The higher PA observed in habitual breakfast eaters may explain the higher CRF values observed. These positive health behaviours and outcomes support the encouragement of regular breakfast eating in this age group.

Oral contraceptive effects on food choice during the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. A laboratory based study.

Fifty-five women were recruited and assigned to a control group or an oral contraceptive (OC) use group. For the control groups menstrual cycle phase was determined using a menstrual calendar and only participants with regular cycles were recruited. Testing was carried out during a single day of the luteal and follicular phases, where participants were asked to consume and rate sweet and savoury snacks. Participants in the OC group were tested on the equivalent days of their pill calendar. In both groups, the luteal phase induced a greater caloric intake of sweet foods without altering hedonic ratings. No significant interactions between either phase or flavour with OC use on food intake or hedonic food ratings were found. At least for snack items, OC do not seem to alter the caloric intake fluctuations that occur during a normal menstrual cycle.

Cortisol awakening rise in middle-aged women in relation to psychological stress.

OBJECTIVES: The cortisol awakening rise (CAR) is defined as cortisol secretory activity in the first 45-60 min immediately post-awakening. It has been suggested that psychological factors may disrupt the normal awakening rise. Recent research has shown that psychological stress may influence the magnitude of the CAR, however the findings have been mixed. This study examined the impact of stress on the CAR and the diurnal mean in a sample of middle-aged women. METHOD: One hundred and eighteen healthy female participants who reported experiencing high or low stress were recruited. Salivary cortisol levels were measured immediately upon awakening (at 0, 15, 30, and 45 min) and at 3, 6, 9 and 12 h on two consecutive days. A number of metabolic and inflammatory biomarkers were also assessed together with measures of mood disturbance and health behaviour. RESULTS: The magnitude of the CAR, assessed by the area under the response curve (AURC) estimate, was significantly lower in the high stress group compared to the low stress group indicating that participants who experienced high stress secreted lower levels of cortisol. The effect was largely accounted for by differences 30 min after waking. The diurnal mean was also lower for the high stress group. Although participants in the high stress group had a slightly worse inflammatory profile, only low-density lipoprotein levels were found to be significantly higher, compared to the low stress group. Lifestyle indicators and mood were also found to be significantly poorer in the high stress group. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that psychological stress may be associated with a smaller cortisol awakening rise, a lower diurnal mean, poor lifestyle choices and high levels of psychological distress. These findings may have broader implications for future health risk and for an individual's ability to cope with imminent daily stressors and demands.

Exploration of basal diurnal salivary cortisol profiles in middle-aged adults: associations with sleep quality and metabolic parameters.

The use of saliva samples is a practical and feasible method to explore basal diurnal cortisol profiles in free-living research. This study explores a number of psychological and physiological characteristics in relation to the observed pattern of salivary cortisol activity over a 12-h period with particular emphasis on sleep. Basal diurnal cortisol profiles were examined in a sample of 147 volunteers (mean age 46.21+/-7.18 years). Profiles were constructed for each volunteer and explored in terms of the area under the curve (AUC) of the cortisol-awakening response with samples obtained immediately upon waking (0, 15, 30 and 45 min post waking) and at 3, 6, 9 and 12h post waking to assess diurnal decline. Diurnal mean of cortisol was based on the mean of cortisol at time points 3, 6, 9 and 12h post waking. Psychological measures of perceived stress and sleep were collected with concurrent biological assessment of fasting plasma glucose, insulin, blood lipids and inflammatory markers. Blunted cortisol profiles, characterised by a reduced AUC, were observed in the majority (78%) of a middle-aged sample and were associated with significantly poorer sleep quality and significantly greater waist-hip ratio (WHR). Blunted cortisol profiles were further associated with a tendency to exhibit a less favourable metabolic profile. These findings suggest that reduced cortisol secretion post waking may serve as an additional marker of psychological and biological vulnerability to adverse health outcomes in middle-aged adults.

Cognitive functioning in polycystic ovary syndrome.

To date there have been no published studies of cognitive functioning in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). This large internet-based study compared neuropsychological functioning in right-handed women with (minimum n=135) and without PCOS (minimum n=322), stratified according to use of anti-androgen medication and level of depression. Women with PCOS are thought to have hyperandrogenism and hyperestrogenism which was hypothesized to differentially influence cognitive function across cognitive domains. Performance did not differ according to diagnosis on mental rotation and spatial location tasks. Hence, no evidence to support the view that women with PCOS display a more masculine cognitive profile due to hyperandrogenism. Despite presumed hyperestrogenism, women with PCOS demonstrated impaired performance in terms of speed and accuracy, on reaction time and word recognition tasks. These findings are intriguing given the well-documented roles of estrogen and testosterone in cognitive function. Overall, these findings suggest that PCOS is not associated with masculinized cognitive functioning, and, although associated with impaired performance on tasks considered to demonstrate female-advantage, such impairments are subtle and are unlikely to affect daily functioning.

Quality of life and psychological well being in polycystic ovary syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is associated with poor quality of life (QoL) and high levels of depression. Existing research is confounded by small sample sizes and inconsistent use of control groups. METHODS: Depression and QoL were assessed in women with PCOS and healthy controls (n = 1359). The polycystic ovary syndrome health-related QoL questionnaire (PCOSQ) was modified to include an acne subscale. RESULTS: Seventy-one percentage of women with PCOS who were taking anti-androgen (AA) medication and 67% not taking AA medication were classified as depressed. Women with PCOS had lower QoL on all seven factors of the modified PCOSQ (emotional disturbance, weight, infertility, acne, menstrual symptoms, menstrual predictability and hirsutism). Weight was the largest contributor to poor QoL for women taking and not taking AA medication. Women taking AA medications, independent of diagnosis, generally had better QoL than women not taking them. CONCLUSIONS: This large study refines our understanding of depression and QoL in PCOS and demonstrates the need to regularly review the psychological health of women with PCOS.

The concentration-dependent effects of ethanol on Caenorhabditis elegans behaviour.

The effects of ethanol on the brain are concentration dependent. Low concentrations (mM) intoxicate, while greater than 100 mM anaesthetize. Of most relevance to human alcohol addiction are mechanisms of intoxication. Previously, Caenorhabditis elegans has been employed in genetic screens to define effectors of intoxication. Here, we inform interpretation of these studies by providing evidence that ethanol rapidly equilibriates across C. elegans cuticle. Importantly, the effect of ethanol on muscle activity rapidly reaches steady-state, and the concentration-dependence of the effect is very similar in intact animals and exposed muscle. Thus the cuticle does not present an absorption barrier for ethanol, and furthermore the internal concentration is likely to approach that applied externally. Thus, modelling intoxication in C. elegans requires exposure to external ethanol less than 100 mM. Furthermore, the permeability of the cuticle to ethanol enables analysis of precisely controlled concentration-dependent effects of acute, chronic, and episodic ethanol exposure on behaviour.

Modest changes in dietary intake across the menstrual cycle: implications for food intake research.

Food intake varies across the menstrual cycle in mammals, energy intake usually being greater in the premenstrual phase compared with the postmenstrual phase. Premenstrual increments in energy intake and a preferential selection of carbohydrate have been suggested to be greater in women with premenstrual syndrome (PMS), who may be more sensitive to cyclical hormonal or neurotransmitter fluctuations. This has direct implications for research within populations of women, especially where the primary outcome is diet or a change in energy balance. We aimed to determine whether: the premenstrual intake of energy and macronutrients differed from the postmenstrual intake; the change in intake across the menstrual cycle differed in women with PMS compared with controls; and the change in intake was related to the severity of premenstrual symptoms. We collected 3 d dietary intake data during the postmenstrual and premenstrual phases of the menstrual cycle in thirty-one women with PMS and twenty-seven control women. The consumption of energy and macronutrient intake were similar between the phases of the cycle in women with PMS. Conversely, intakes were usually greater premenstrually in control women, although not all differences were statistically significant. Exceptions were with non-milk extrinsic sugars and alcohol, which were both consumed in greater amounts in the premenstrual phase in women with PMS. Significant correlations were observed between the severity of symptoms and the change in the consumption of these nutrients. These data suggest that a consideration of the menstrual cycle phase and PMS in diet may not be warranted, especially in cross-sectional analysis, although it may need to be taken into account when examining change in intake during dietary interventions.

Molecular characterization of the metabotropic glutamate receptor family in Caenorhabditis elegans.

mGluRs (metabotropic glutamate receptors) are G-protein-coupled receptors that play an important neuromodulatory role in the brain. Glutamatergic transmission itself plays a fundamental role in the simple nervous system of the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, but little is known about the contribution made by mGluR signalling. The sequenced genome of C. elegans predicts three distinct genes, mgl-1, mgl-2 and mgl-3 (designated Y4C6A.2). We have used in silico and cDNA analyses to investigate the genes encoding mgls. Our results indicate that mgl genes constitute a gene family made up of three distinct subclasses of receptor. Our transcript analysis highlights potential for complex gene regulation with respect to both expression and splicing. Further, we identify that the predicted proteins encoded by mgls harbour structural motifs that are likely to regulate function. Taken together, this molecular characterization provides a platform to further investigate mGluR function in the model organism C. elegans.

The effect of dermatology consultations in secondary care on treatment outcome and quality of life in new adult patients with atopic dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of atopic dermatitis (AD) is increasing worldwide, and many patients present to secondary care in adult life. This is a significant contribution to the workload of all dermatology departments. There are no studies investigating the impact of a dermatology consultation within secondary care. OBJECTIVES: To examine the effect of dermatology consultations in secondary care on treatment outcome and quality of life in new adult patients with AD. METHODS: This prospective observational study recruited new adult patients with AD referred from primary care. Eczema severity was assessed using the SCORAD (Severity Scoring of AD) index and subjective good or poor clinical outcome. The Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) was used to quantify the impact of AD on adult patients. Patients were assessed at initial consultation (T1), 6 weeks (T2) and 3 months (T3). Statistical analysis was performed using independent t-tests, repeated-measures analysis of variance, correlation coefficients and Bonferroni post hoc comparisons. RESULTS: Sixty-three patients were recruited (37 women, 26 men) with a mean age of 34 years. Mean SCORAD at T1 was 48.2 and the majority (51%) had severe eczema (objective SCORAD>40). Mean SCORAD reduced by 52% from T1 to T2 (P<0.001) but there was no significant change in SCORAD from T2 to T3. A subjective good clinical outcome was validated by a decrease in SCORAD of >20 (P<0.001). Patients in the good clinical outcome group were significantly older than those in the poor clinical outcome group (38 vs. 27 years, P<0.05). The mean age at presentation of women was significantly younger than men (29 vs. 43 years, P<0.01). Women's mean SCORAD improved over all three visits, while men's mean SCORAD improved from T1 to T2 but worsened from T2 to T3 (P<0.001). The mean DLQI reduced over all three visits, from 9.5 at T1 to 8.8 at T2 and 7.0 at T3, and was significantly correlated with SCORAD at T1 and T2 (P<0.01). Patients accurately self-scored their eczema on a body map as shown by a significant correlation between these scores and SCORAD at T1 and T2 (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: We have shown that within the first 3 months of referral to secondary care, new adult patients with AD have the greatest improvement in AD, measured by SCORAD, after their initial appointment. Quality of life, as measured by DLQI, continued to improve over all three visits.

Menstrual cycle symptoms are associated with changes in low-grade inflammation.

BACKGROUND: A close link between mood, low-grade inflammation and obesity has been demonstrated even in healthy subjects. We investigated the relationship between changes in physical and psychological symptoms and inflammatory markers during the menstrual cycle both in normal weight and in overweight women. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eight healthy normal weight (body mass index 21.6 +/- 1.9 kg m(-2)) and seven overweight (body mass index 30 +/- 2.4 kg m(-2)) young women with normal ovarian function and with no premenstrual syndrome were assessed 15 times throughout their menstrual cycle. At each time point fasting blood was drawn and symptoms were recorded using the Freeman Daily Symptom Record. RESULTS: Independent of weight status, the serum concentrations of highly sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) and the total scores, in addition to the individual four factors (mood, behaviour, pain and physical symptoms), of the Daily Symptom Record varied significantly during the menstrual cycle (all P < or = 0.04) and paralleled each other. During the menstrual cycle, repeated hs-CRP serum concentrations correlated to the corresponding total symptom score and the factors mood, behaviour and physical symptoms, independent of both weight status and changes in circulating gonadal steroids (all P < or = 0.04). These associations were not observed for tumour necrosis factor-alpha serum levels. The mean hs-CRP concentrations were associated with the mean total symptom score, independent of weight status (r = 0.56, P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Healthy young women showed psychological and physical symptoms during the menstrual cycle which changed in association with alterations in low-grade inflammation and which were independent of body weight or plasma levels of gonadal steroids.

Effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol.

RATIONALE: Sleep deprivation has a negative effect on cognitive and psychomotor performance and mood state, partially due to decreases in creatine levels in the brain. Therefore, creatine supplementation should lessen the negative effects of sleep deprivation. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to examine the effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol. METHOD: Subjects were divided into a creatine group (n=10) and a placebo group (n=9). They took 5 g of creatine monohydrate or a placebo, dependent on their group, four times a time a day for 7 days, immediately prior to the experiment. The study was double blind. Subjects undertook tests of random movement generation (RMG), verbal and spatial recall, choice reaction time, static balance and mood state pre-test (0 h), after 6, 12 and 24 h of sleep deprivation, with intermittent exercise. They were tested for plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol at 0 and 24 h. RESULTS: At 24 h, the creatine group demonstrated significantly less change in performance from 0 h (delta) in RMG, choice reaction time, balance and mood state. There were no significant differences between groups in plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol. Norepinephrine and dopamine concentrations were significantly higher at 24 h than 0 h, but cortisol were lower. CONCLUSIONS: Following 24-h sleep deprivation, creatine supplementation had a positive effect on mood state and tasks that place a heavy stress on the prefrontal cortex.