Quantitative TMT-based proteomics revealing host, dietary and microbial proteins in bovine faeces including barley serpin Z4, a prominent component in the head of beer.

There has been little information about the proteome of bovine faeces or about the contribution to the faecal proteome of proteins from the host, the feed or the intestinal microbiome. Here, the bovine faecal proteome and the origin of its component proteins was assessed, while also determining the effect of treating barley, the major carbohydrate in the feed, with either ammonia (ATB) or sodium propionate (PTB) preservative. Healthy continental crossbreed steers were allocated to two groups and fed on either of the barley-based diets. Five faecal samples from each group were collected on Day 81 of the trial and analysed by quantitative proteomics using nLC-ESI-MS/MS after tandem mass tag labelling. In total, 281 bovine proteins, 199 barley proteins, 176 bacterial proteins and 190 archaeal proteins were identified in the faeces. Mucosal pentraxin, albumin and digestive enzymes were among bovine proteins identified. Serpin Z4 a protease inhibitor was the most abundant barley protein identified which is also found in barley-based beer, while numerous microbial proteins were identified, many originating bacteria from Clostridium, while Methanobrevibacter was the dominant archaeal genus. Thirty-nine proteins were differentially abundant between groups, the majority being more abundant in the PTB group compared to the ATB group. SIGNIFICANCE: Proteomic examination of faeces is becoming a valuable means to assess the health of the gastro-intestinal tract in several species, but knowledge on the proteins present in bovine faeces is limited. This investigation aimed to characterise the proteome of bovine faecal extracts in order to evaluate the potential for investigations of the proteome as a means to assess the health, disease and welfare of cattle in the future. The investigation was able to identify proteins in bovine faeces that had been (i) produced by the individual cattle, (ii) present in the barley-based feed eaten by the cattle or (iii) produced by bacteria and other microbes in the rumen or intestines. Bovine proteins identified included mucosal pentraxin, serum albumin and a variety of digestive enzymes. Barley proteins found in the faeces included serpin Z4, a protease inhibitor that is also found in beer having survived the brewing process. Bacterial and archaeal proteins in the faecal extracts were related to several pathways related to the metabolism of carbohydrates. The recognition of the range of proteins that can be identified in bovine faeces raises the possibility that non-invasive sample collection of this material could provide a novel diagnostic approach to cattle health and welfare.

Review: Proteomic approaches to control lactational parameters in dairy cows.

The use of a proteomic approach to investigate changes in the milk proteome is growing and has parralleled the increasing technological developments in proteomics moving from early investigation using a gel-based two-dimensional separation approach to more quantitative method of current focus applying chromatography and mass spectrometry. Proteomic approaches to investigate lactational performance have made substantial findings especially in the alterations in lactation during mastitis. An experimental model of Streptococcus uberis infection of the mammary gland has been used as a means to determine change not only in the milk proteome, but also in the peptidome and in the metabolome caused by the infection. Examination of the peptidome, that is the peptides of less than 25 kDa in molecular weight, demonstrated an increase in small peptides most of which were casein degradation products but also included small bioactive peptides such as mammary-associated serum amyloid A3 (MSAA3). The peptidome has also been shown to differ depending on the causative bacteria of naturally occuring mastitis. The use of a non-gel-based relative quantitative proteomic methodology has revealed major changes in the protein component of milk in mastitis. The S. uberis infection lead to increases in the concentrations of proteins such as cathelicidins, haptoglobin, MSAA3 and decreases milk content of proteins such as xanthine oxidase, butyrophilin and ß-1,4-galactosyltransferase. Analysis of all protein change data identified the acute phase, coagulation and complement pathways as well as proteins related to bile acid metabolism as being most modified. Examination of the small molecular weight organic molecules of milk using a metabolomic approach identified an increase in the content in milk during mastitis of bile acids such as taurochenodeoxycholic acid. Notable changes were also found in metabolites responding to infection of the mammary gland. Carbohydrate and nucleic acid metabolites were reduced, whereas lipid and nitrogen containing metabolites were increased. The latter included increases in amino acids along with di and tri peptides, likely to be the result of casein degradation. The use of proteomics and other omic technology is in its infancy in investigation of lactational parameters, but can already provide additional insight into the changes involved in disease and will have further value in physiological and nutritional investigation of lactation.

A comparative study of acute-phase protein concentrations in historical and modern broiler breeding lines.

Acute-phase proteins (APP) are secreted from the liver as a result of inflammation or infection and are measurable in serum and plasma. To determine whether the constitutive APP serum amyloid A (SAA), alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), ceruloplasmin (Cp), and ovotransferrin (Ovt) have changed as a result of selection for improved production and growth characteristics over the last 40 yr two historical broilers lines were compared to a modern line of the same lineage. Serum was harvested from blood samples taken from the 3 broiler lines on days 10, 17, and 20, and the APP concentrations were determined using immunoassay methods. Most of the significant changes observed were age related, with SAA and Cp having significantly lower concentrations at day 20 than days 10 and 17 in all lines. The only significant difference between lines was observed at day 20 on which both Cp (P = 0.01) and AGP (P = 0.03) were significantly higher in the modern line than the 90s line, though no significant differences were noted between the modern and 70s line. When evaluating the difference in APP concentrations between males (Cx) and females (Px) across all 3 lines, females had a higher SAA at day 17 and lower SAA at day 20, P = 0.0078 and 0.0327 respectively, and males had a significantly higher Ovt on days 17 and 20 (P = 0.0002 and P = 0.003 respectively). These results reveal that APP concentrations fluctuate over this early period of growth and that the changes in APP serum concentration appear uniform between 3 lines with very contrasting selection history, suggesting the improvements made in meat production efficiency since the 1970s have not affected the circulating concentrations of these constitutively expressed APP.

A pilot study of acute phase proteins as indicators of bovine mastitis caused by different pathogens.

This study analysed three acute phase proteins in milk from natural cases of bovine mastitis and compared their profiles across different pathogens causing the infection. Their ability to differentiate subclinical and clinical mastitis from normal (uninfected) milk samples was also examined. Samples from various dairy farms across Scotland submitted to the Veterinary Diagnostic Services unit of the University of Glasgow were used for this study. They were subjected to microbiological examination for mastitis pathogens, evaluation of somatic cell counts and analyses by ELISAs for haptoglobin, C-reactive protein and mammary associated serum amyloid A3. Each acute phase protein (APP) was compared across pathogens and form of mastitis. Significant differences (P = 0.000) were observed for each APP between causative pathogen and form of mastitis. There were significant correlations between the pathogen and the form of mastitis and the 3 APP showed similar profile for the different pathogen type and forms of mastitis. It can be concluded that the aetiological pathogen of mastitis to a large extent influences the clinical form of the disease, this, ultimately being reflected in the degree and course of secretions of the acute phase proteins; Hp, M-SAA3 and CRP into milk during mastitis. Variations of which, show correspondent patterns with related pathogen/form-of-mastitis.

Pilot study into milk haptoglobin as an indicator of udder health in heifers after calving.

Mastitis, inflammation of the mammary gland, is often caused by intramammary infection with bacterial organisms. It impacts on dairy cattle welfare, production, udder health and longevity in the herd. Current detection methods for mammary inflammation and infection all have limitations, particularly for on-farm diagnosis of non-clinical mastitis after calving. Acute phase proteins have been suggested as alternative early indicators of the disease and can potentially be used as cow-side test with results in real time. In this study, milk haptoglobin concentrations were investigated over the first week postpartum to explore haptoglobin's potential as indicator of udder health in dairy heifers. Haptoglobin concentration was highest on day 3 of lactation, and was positively correlated with somatic cell count, a commonly used marker of inflammation (rs=0.68). Haptoglobin level was also associated with bacteriological culture results, a key indicator of infection status, whereby median haptoglobin concentration on days 3 and 5 was higher in quarters that were infected at calving than quarters that were non infected at calving. Sensitivity and specificity of haptoglobin concentration as indicator of infection were low, both for lenient and strict culture-based definitions of intramammary infection (57 or 60% and 61 or 63%, respectively). Although haptoglobin was a poor biomarker for intramammary infection with coagulase negative staphylococci in heifers during the first week after calving, it may have value as an indicator of major pathogen infections, particularly in large scale dairy herds where pre-partum heifers are managed off-site.

Evaluation of the modified Glasgow Prognostic Score to predict outcome in dogs with newly diagnosed lymphoma.

The modified Glasgow Prognostic Score (mGPS) assigns a numerical value (0-2) from pre-treatment serum concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP) and albumin to predict patient outcome. CRP and albumin were evaluated in 77 untreated dogs with lymphoma to determine the relationship of mGPS to clinicopathological parameters and whether it could predict progression-free (PFS) and overall survival (OS) in treated dogs. mGPS distribution was significantly associated with clinical stage, substage b, weight loss, gastrointestinal disturbances and lethargy at presentation. On univariate analysis, mGPS was significantly associated with OS and PFS, with shorter median survival times for mGPS 2 compared to mGPS 0 and 1 combined. Hypoalbuminaemia significantly reduced OS and PFS, however increased CRP had no effect. Only clinical stage was significantly associated with OS and PFS on both univariate and multivariate analysis. mGPS has potential prognostic value for canine lymphoma , but further studies are needed.

Technical pre-analytical effects on the clinical biochemistry of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.).

Clinical biochemistry has long been utilized in human and veterinary medicine as a vital diagnostic tool, but despite occasional studies showing its usefulness in monitoring health status in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.), it has not yet been widely utilized within the aquaculture industry. This is due, in part, to a lack of an agreed protocol for collection and processing of blood prior to analysis. Moreover, while the analytical phase of clinical biochemistry is well controlled, there is a growing understanding that technical pre-analytical variables can influence analyte concentrations or activities. In addition, post-analytical interpretation of treatment effects is variable in the literature, thus making the true effect of sample treatment hard to evaluate. Therefore, a number of pre-analytical treatments have been investigated to examine their effect on analyte concentrations and activities. In addition, reference ranges for salmon plasma biochemical analytes have been established to inform veterinary practitioners and the aquaculture industry of the importance of clinical biochemistry in health and disease monitoring. Furthermore, a standardized protocol for blood collection has been proposed.

Selective precipitation reaction: a novel diagnostic test for tissue pathology in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, infected with salmonid alphavirus (SAV3).

While investigating biomarkers for infection with salmonid alphavirus (SAV), the cause of pancreas disease (PD), a selective precipitation reaction (SPR) has been discovered in serum which could be an on-farm qualitative test and an in-laboratory quantitative assay for health assessments in aquaculture. Mixing serum from Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, with SAV infection with a sodium acetate buffer caused a visible precipitation which does not occur with serum from healthy salmon. Proteomic examination of the precipitate has revealed that the components are a mix of muscle proteins, for example enolase and aldolase, along with serum protein such as serotransferrin and complement C9. The assay has been optimized for molarity, pH, temperature and wavelength so that the precipitation can be measured as the change in optical density at 340 nm (Δ340 ). Application of the SPR assay to serum samples from a cohabitation trial of SAV infection in salmon showed that the Δ340 in infected fish rose from undetectable to a maximum at 6 weeks post-infection correlating with histopathological score of pancreas, heart and muscle damage. This test may have a valuable role to play in the diagnostic evaluation of stock health in salmon.

Animal board invited review: advances in proteomics for animal and food sciences.

Animal production and health (APH) is an important sector in the world economy, representing a large proportion of the budget of all member states in the European Union and in other continents. APH is a highly competitive sector with a strong emphasis on innovation and, albeit with country to country variations, on scientific research. Proteomics (the study of all proteins present in a given tissue or fluid - i.e. the proteome) has an enormous potential when applied to APH. Nevertheless, for a variety of reasons and in contrast to disciplines such as plant sciences or human biomedicine, such potential is only now being tapped. To counter such limited usage, 6 years ago we created a consortium dedicated to the applications of Proteomics to APH, specifically in the form of a Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Action, termed FA1002--Proteomics in Farm Animals: www.cost-faproteomics.org. In 4 years, the consortium quickly enlarged to a total of 31 countries in Europe, as well as Israel, Argentina, Australia and New Zealand. This article has a triple purpose. First, we aim to provide clear examples on the applications and benefits of the use of proteomics in all aspects related to APH. Second, we provide insights and possibilities on the new trends and objectives for APH proteomics applications and technologies for the years to come. Finally, we provide an overview and balance of the major activities and accomplishments of the COST Action on Farm Animal Proteomics. These include activities such as the organization of seminars, workshops and major scientific conferences, organization of summer schools, financing Short-Term Scientific Missions (STSMs) and the generation of scientific literature. Overall, the Action has attained all of the proposed objectives and has made considerable difference by putting proteomics on the global map for animal and veterinary researchers in general and by contributing significantly to reduce the East-West and North-South gaps existing in the European farm animal research. Future activities of significance in the field of scientific research, involving members of the action, as well as others, will likely be established in the future.

Serum enolase: a non-destructive biomarker of white skeletal myopathy during pancreas disease (PD) in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L.

Diseases which cause skeletal muscle myopathy are some of the most economically damaging diseases in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., aquaculture. Despite this, there are limited means of assessing fish health non-destructively. Previous investigation of the serum proteome of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., during pancreas disease (PD) has identified proteins in serum that have potential as biomarkers of the disease. Amongst these proteins, the enzyme enolase was selected as the most viable for use as a biomarker of muscle myopathy associated with PD. Western blot and immunoassay (ELISA) validated enolase as a biomarker for PD, whilst immunohistochemistry identified white muscle as the source of enolase. Enolase was shown to be a specific marker for white muscle myopathy in salmon, rising in serum concentration significantly correlating with pathological damage to the tissue.

Acute phase proteins, interleukin 6, and heat shock protein 70 in broiler chickens administered with corticosterone.

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of corticosterone (CORT) administration on serum ovotransferrin (OVT), α1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), ceruloplasmin (CPN), and IL-6 concentrations, and brain heat shock protein (HSP) 70 expression in broiler chickens. From 14 to 20 d of age, equal numbers of birds were subjected to either (i) daily intramuscular injection with CORT in ethanol:saline (1:1, vol/vol) at 6 mg/kg of BW, or (ii) daily intramuscular injection with 0.5 mL ethanol:saline (1:1, vol/vol; control). Blood samples were collected before CORT treatment (14 d old), 3 and 7 d after CORT injections, and 4 d after cessation of CORT administration for determination of serum levels of CORT, OVT, AGP, CPN, and IL-6. Brain samples (whole cerebrum) were collected to measure HSP 70 density. Although CORT administration significantly increased feed intake, weight gain was significantly depressed. Administration of CORT also increased CORT, OVT, CPN, AGP, IL-6, and HSP 70 expression. Four days following cessation of CORT administration, OVT declined to the basal level but not CPN and AGP. In conclusion, an elevation in CORT can induce an acute-phase response and HSP 70 expression. Thus, APP and HSP 70 may be of value as indicators of stress in poultry.

Response to dietary supplementation of L-glutamine and L-glutamate in broiler chickens reared at different stocking densities under hot, humid tropical conditions.

A study was conducted to determine whether supplementing AminoGut (a commercial dietary supplement containing a mixture of l-glutamine and l-glutamic acid) to broiler chickens stocked at 2 different densities affected performance, physiological stress responses, foot pad dermatitis incidence, and intestinal morphology and microflora. A randomized design in a factorial arrangement with 4 diets [basal diet, basal diet + 0.5% AminoGut from d 1 to 21, basal diet + 0.5% AminoGut from d 1 to 42, and basal diet + virginiamycin (0.02%) for d 1 to 42] and 2 stocking densities [0.100 m(2)/bird (23 birds/pen; LD) or 0.067 m(2)/bird (35 birds/pen; HD)]. Results showed that villi length and crypt depth were not changed by different dietary treatments. However, birds in the HD group had smaller villi (P = 0.03) compared with those of the LD group. Regardless of diet, HD consistently increased the serum concentrations of ceruloplasmin, α-1 acid glycoprotein, ovotransferin, and corticosterone (P = 0.0007), and elevated heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (0.0005). Neither AminoGut supplementation nor stocking density affected cecal microflora counts. In conclusion, under the conditions of this study, dietary supplementation of AminoGut, irrespective of stocking density, had no beneficial effect on growth performance, intestinal morphology, and physiological adaptive responses of broiler chickens raised under hot and humid tropical conditions. However, AminoGut supplementation from d 1 to 42 was beneficial in reducing mortality rate. Also, the increased serum concentrations of a wide range of acute phase proteins together with elevated corticosterone and heterophil to lymphocyte ratio suggested that high stocking density induced an acute phase response either indirectly as a result of increased incidence of inflammatory diseases such as foot pad dermatitis or possibly as a direct physiological response to the stress of high stocking density.

Serum haptoglobin concentrations in dogs with liver disease.

Dogs with liver disease have been shown to have increased serum C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations. However, it is unclear whether dogs with liver disease also have increased serum haptoglobin concentrations. The aim of the study was to measure serum haptoglobin concentrations in healthy dogs, hospitalised dogs and dogs with liver diseases. Haptoglobin concentrations were measured in 30 healthy dogs, 47 hospitalised dogs with non-hepatic illness, 46 dogs with congenital portosystemic shunt (cPSS) and 11 dogs with primary hepatopathy. Haptoglobin concentrations were not significantly different between cPSS dogs with and without hepatic encephalopathy (HE), thus all cPSS dogs were considered as one group. Haptoglobin concentrations were significantly different between the remaining groups (P<0.0001). Hospitalised ill dogs had significantly higher haptoglobin concentrations than healthy dogs (P<0.001), dogs with cPSS (P<0.001) and dogs with primary hepatopathy (P<0.05). There was no significant difference between haptoglobin concentrations in healthy dogs, dogs with cPSS and dogs with primary hepatopathy. Haptoglobin concentrations were not significantly increased in dogs with liver diseases or in dogs with cPSS and HE. This is in contrast with the previously reported CRP results. This study demonstrates that liver function should be considered when interpreting haptoglobin concentrations in dogs.

The serum proteome of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, during pancreas disease (PD) following infection with salmonid alphavirus subtype 3 (SAV3).

Salmonid alphavirus is the aetological agent of pancreas disease (PD) in marine Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, and rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, with most outbreaks in Norway caused by SAV subtype 3 (SAV3). This atypical alphavirus is transmitted horizontally causing a significant economic impact on the aquaculture industry. This histopathological and proteomic study, using an established cohabitational experimental model, investigated the correlation between tissue damage during PD and a number of serum proteins associated with these pathologies in Atlantic salmon. The proteins were identified by two-dimensional electrophoresis, trypsin digest and peptide MS/MS fingerprinting. A number of humoral components of immunity which may act as biomarkers of the disease were also identified. For example, creatine kinase, enolase and malate dehydrogenase serum concentrations were shown to correlate with pathology during PD. In contrast, hemopexin, transferrin, and apolipoprotein, amongst others, altered during later stages of the disease and did not correlate with tissue pathologies. This approach has given new insight into not only PD but also fish disease as a whole, by characterisation of the protein response to infection, through pathological processes to tissue recovery. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Salmonid alphavirus causes pancreas disease (PD) in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, and has a major economic impact on the aquaculture industry. A proteomic investigation of the change to the serum proteome during PD has been made with an established experimental model of the disease. Serum proteins were identified by two-dimensional electrophoresis, trypsin digest and peptide MS/MS fingerprinting with 72 protein spots being shown to alter significantly over the 12week period of the infection. The concentrations of certain proteins in serum such as creatine kinase, enolase and malate dehydrogenase were shown to correlate with tissue pathology while other proteins such as hemopexin, transferrin, and apolipoprotein, altered in concentration during later stages of the disease and did not correlate with tissue pathologies. The protein response to infection may be used to monitor disease progression and enhance understanding of the pathology of PD.

Changes in the serum proteome of canine lymphoma identified by electrophoresis and mass spectrometry.

The serum proteome of canine lymphoma was characterised by one dimensional (1D) serum protein electrophoresis (SPE) on agarose gels, two dimensional (2D) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS). Results were compared with serum proteome data collected previously from the sera of healthy dogs. Twenty-one dogs with high grade multicentric lymphoma had significantly elevated quantities of α2 globulins on 1D SPE. Further separation of the serum proteins was performed on three dogs using a 2D PAGE system. Thirty-six different proteins were identified in 38 bands submitted for MS. Most of the proteins were the same as those previously identified in the sera of healthy dogs. Haptoglobin was identified in the sera of all three dogs with lymphoma and could account for the increased levels of α2 globulins. α2 Macroglobulin, α-antichymotrypsin and inter-α-trypsin inhibitor were also present in dogs with lymphoma. Clusterin, an anti-apoptotic protein, was identified in the serum of one dog with lymphoma. Kininogen, which is present in the sera of healthy dogs, was absent in all three dogs with lymphoma. The 2D electrophoresis technique identified alterations in the serum proteome of dogs with lymphoma and supported previous findings that canine lymphoma has an inflammatory component.

Characterisation of the normal canine serum proteome using a novel electrophoretic technique combined with mass spectrometry.

One dimensional (1D) serum protein electrophoresis (SPE) on agarose gels is a frequently used diagnostic tool for canine diseases; however, little is known regarding the precise composition of the different protein fractions in normal or diseased animals. In this study, to analyse the canine serum proteome in more detail, conventional 1D SPE was combined with second dimension (2D) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), followed by tandem mass spectrometry (MS). One dimensional SPE was performed on the sera of 17 healthy dogs to establish normal reference ranges for the albumin and globulin sub-fractions. Two representative serum samples from healthy dogs were further separated using a novel method of 2D PAGE, leading to the generation of 26 distinct bands across the six main sub-fractions, which were subjected to MS analysis. Thirty-two proteins were identified, most of which were found in both dogs. Twenty proteins belonged specifically to the species Canis lupus familiaris, with the remaining 12 proteins belonging to other mammalian species, likely reflecting incomplete sequencing knowledge of canine proteins. Two dimensional electrophoresis and MS allowed identification of canine serum albumin precursor, serpin peptidase inhibitor, kininogen-1, vitamin D binding protein, haemopexin, complement C4 and a variety of immunoglobulin class molecules, along with localisation of these proteins within serum protein subfractions.

Why working with porcine circulating serum amyloid A is a pig of a job.

Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a major acute phase protein in most species, and is widely employed as a health marker. Systemic SAA isoforms (SAA1, and SAA2) are apolipoproteins synthesized by the liver which associate with high density lipoproteins (HDL). Local SAA (SAA3) isoforms are synthesized in other tissues and are present in colostrums, mastitic milk and mammary dry secretions. Of systemic SAA the bulk is monomeric and bound to HDL, and a small proportion is found in serum in a multimeric form with a buried HDL binding site. In most species, systemic SAA could easily be studied by purifying it from serum of diseased individuals by hydrophobic interaction chromatography methods. For years, we were not able to isolate systemic pig SAA using the latter methods, and found that the bulk of pig SAA did not reside in the HDL-rich serum fractions but in the soluble protein fraction mainly as a multimeric protein. Based on these surprising results, we analysed in silico the theoretical properties and predicted the secondary structure of pig SAA by using the published pig primary SAA amino acid sequence. Results of the analysis confirmed that systemic pig SAA had the highest homology with local SAA3 which in other species is the isoform associated with non-hepatic production in tissues such as mammary gland and intestinal epithelium. Furthermore, the primary sequence of the pig SAA N-terminal HDL binding site did differ considerably from SAA1/2. Secondary structure analysis of the predicted alpha-helical structure of this HDL binding site showed a considerable reduction in hydrophobicity compared to SAA1/2. Based on these results, it is argued that systemic acute phase SAA in the pig has the structural properties of locally produced SAA (SAA3). It is proposed that in pig SAA multimers the charged N-terminal sequence is buried, which would explain their different properties. It is concluded that pig systemic SAA is unique compared to other species, which raises questions about the proposed importance of acute phase SAA in HDL metabolism during inflammation in this species.

Acute phase response to Mycoplasma haemofelis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' infection in FIV-infected and non-FIV-infected cats.

The pathogenicity of Haemoplasma spp. in cats varies with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMhm) causing subclinical infection while Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf) often induces haemolytic anaemia. The aims of this study were to characterise the acute phase response (APR) of the cat to experimental infection with Mhf or CMhm, and to determine whether chronic feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection influences this response. The acute phase proteins serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (Hp) and α-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) concentrations were measured pre-infection and every 7-14 days up to day 100 post-infection (pi) in cats infected with either Mhf or CMhm. Half of each group of cats (6/12) were chronically and subclinically infected with FIV. Marbofloxacin treatment was given on days 16-44 pi to half of the Mhf-infected cats, and on days 49-77 pi to half of the CMhm-infected cats. FIV-infected animals had significantly lower AGP concentrations, and significantly greater Hp concentrations than non-FIV-infected cats when infected with CMhm and Mhf, respectively. Both CMhm and Mhf infection were associated with significant increases in SAA concentrations, while AGP concentrations were only significantly increased by Mhf infection. Mhf-infected cats had significantly greater SAA concentrations than CMhm-infected animals. Both Mhf and CMhm infections were associated with an APR, with Mhf infection inducing a greater response. Chronic FIV infection appeared to modify the APR, which varied with the infecting Haemoplasma species.

Acute phase protein levels in dogs with mast cell tumours and sarcomas.

The acute phase proteins (APP) form part of a non-specific host response to inflammation. They may be induced by a range of different causes, including infection, inflammation, cancer and trauma. As they form part of the earliest response to such insults, they have potential for early identification of disease. In people, APP levels have been shown to correlate both with the extent of disease and also the prognosis in several forms of neoplasia, including prostate, oesophageal and colorectal cancer. As such, they can be used as prognostic and monitoring tools. To date, similar studies in veterinary patients have been limited, largely retrospective in nature and many are non-specific for tumour type. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a panel of four APPs in dogs with naturally occurring mast cell tumours (MCTs) and sarcomas to identify in the first instance whether increased levels of individual APPs, or identifiable combinations of APPs, was linked with the presence of disease. In the patients with MCTs, C-reactive protein (CRP) and α-1 acid glycoprotein levels increased, with a concurrent drop in serum amyloid A levels. In the sarcoma patients, CRP, α-1 acid glycoprotein and haptoglobin were increased. These findings suggest that specific solid tumour types in dogs may be associated with specific changes in APP profiles.

Acute phase proteins in ruminants.

The physiological response to infections and injuries involves local inflammation and the initiation of events leading to a systemic response, also called acute phase reaction (APR). This multiplicity of changes is distant from the site of injury, and includes fever, leukocytosis and quantitative and qualitative modification of a group of non-structurally related proteins present in blood and other biological fluids, collectively named Acute Phase Proteins (APP). Proteomic investigations of serum or plasma following natural or experimental infection frequently reveal substantial alterations in the APP, several of which are high abundance proteins in these fluids. The present review will focus on the results of recent research on ruminant APP. Highlight points will include: - The structure and the functions of the main APPs in ruminants, as well as the regulatory mechanisms that trigger their systemic and local expression in both physiological and pathological conditions.- The clinical aspects of APPs in ruminants, including the current and future application to veterinary diagnosis and animal production.- The APP in small and wildlife ruminants.- Alteration in APP detected by proteomic investigations.