Multicellularity and the Need for Communication-A Systematic Overview on (Algal) Plasmodesmata and Other Types of Symplasmic Cell Connections.

In the evolution of eukaryotes, the transition from unicellular to simple multicellular organisms has happened multiple times. For the development of complex multicellularity, characterized by sophisticated body plans and division of labor between specialized cells, symplasmic intercellular communication is supposed to be indispensable. We review the diversity of symplasmic connectivity among the eukaryotes and distinguish between distinct types of non-plasmodesmatal connections, plasmodesmata-like structures, and 'canonical' plasmodesmata on the basis of developmental, structural, and functional criteria. Focusing on the occurrence of plasmodesmata (-like) structures in extant taxa of fungi, brown algae (Phaeophyceae), green algae (Chlorophyta), and streptophyte algae, we present a detailed critical update on the available literature which is adapted to the present classification of these taxa and may serve as a tool for future work. From the data, we conclude that, actually, development of complex multicellularity correlates with symplasmic connectivity in many algal taxa, but there might be alternative routes. Furthermore, we deduce a four-step process towards the evolution of canonical plasmodesmata and demonstrate similarity of plasmodesmata in streptophyte algae and land plants with respect to the occurrence of an ER component. Finally, we discuss the urgent need for functional investigations and molecular work on cell connections in algal organisms.

Extracellular vesicles isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley plants exhibit no growth inhibition or gene silencing in Fusarium graminearum.

Numerous reports have shown that incorporating a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-expressing transgene into plants or applying dsRNA by spraying it onto their leaves successfully protects them against invading pathogens exploiting the mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi). How dsRNAs or siRNAs are transferred between donor host cells and recipient fungal cells is largely unknown. It is speculated that plant extracellular vesicles (EVs) function as RNA shuttles between plants and their pathogens. Recently, we found that EVs isolated from host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) or spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) plants contained dsRNA-derived siRNAs. In this study, we evaluated whether isolated EVs from dsRNA-sprayed barley (Hordeum vulgare) plants affected the growth of the phytopathogenic ascomycete Fusarium graminearum. Encouraged by our previous finding that dropping barley-derived EVs on F. graminearum cultures caused fungal stress phenotypes, we conducted an in vitro growth experiment in microtiter plates where we co-cultivated F. graminearum with plant EVs isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley leaves. We observed that co-cultivation of F. graminearum macroconidia with barley EVs did not affect fungal growth. Furthermore, plant EVs containing SIGS-derived siRNA appeared not to affect F. graminearum growth and showed no gene silencing activity on F. graminearum CYP51 genes. Based on our findings, we concluded that either the amount of SIGS-derived siRNA was insufficient to induce target gene silencing in F. graminearum, indicating that the role of EVs in SIGS is minor, or that F. graminearum uptake of plant EVs from liquid cultures was inefficient or impossible.

Developmental Plasticity of the Amphibious Liverwort Riccia fluitans.

The colonization of land by ancestors of embryophyte plants was one of the most significant evolutionary events in the history of life on earth. The lack of a buffering aquatic environment necessitated adaptations for coping with novel abiotic challenges, particularly high light intensities and desiccation as well as the formation of novel anchoring structures. Bryophytes mark the transition from freshwater to terrestrial habitats and form adaptive features such as rhizoids for soil contact and water uptake, devices for gas exchange along with protective and repellent surface layers. The amphibious liverwort Riccia fluitans can grow as a land form (LF) or water form (WF) and was employed to analyze these critical traits in two different habitats. A combination of light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies was conducted to characterize and compare WF and LF morphologies. A complete phenotypic adaptation of a WF plant to a terrestrial habitat is accomplished within 15 days after the transition. Stable transgenic R. fluitans lines expressing GFP-TUBULIN and mCherry proteins were generated to study cell division and differentiation processes and revealed a higher cell division activity in enlarged meristematic regions at LF apical notches. Morphological studies demonstrated that the R. fluitans WF initiates air pore formation. However, these pores are arrested at an early four cell stage and do not develop further into open pores that could mediate gas exchange. Similarly, also arrested rhizoid initial cells are formed in the WF, which exhibit a distinctive morphology compared to other ventral epidermal cells. Furthermore, we detected that the LF thallus has a reduced surface permeability compared to the WF, likely mediated by formation of thicker LF cell walls and a distinct cuticle compared to the WF. Our R. fluitans developmental plasticity studies can serve as a basis to further investigate in a single genotype the molecular mechanisms of adaptations essential for plants during the conquest of land.

Evaluation of genome size and quantitative features of the dolipore septum as taxonomic predictors for the Serendipita 'williamsii' species complex.

Despite multiple taxonomic revisions, several uncertainties at the genus and species level remain to be resolved within the Serendipitaceae family (Sebacinales). This volatile classification is attributed to the limited number of available axenic cultures and the scarcity of useful morphological traits. In the current study, we attempted to discover alternative taxonomic markers not relying on DNA sequences to differentiate among the closely related members of our Congolese Serendipita isolate collection and the reference strains S. indica (syn. Piriformospora indica) and S. williamsii (syn. P. williamsii). We demonstrated that nuclear distribution across hyphal cells and genome size (determined by flow cytometry) did not have enough resolving power, but quantitative and qualitative variations in the ultrastructure of the dolipore septa investigated by transmission electron microscopy did provide useful markers. Multivariate analysis revealed that subtle differences in ultrastructural characteristics of the parenthesome and the attached endoplasmic reticulum are most relevant when studying this fungal group. Moreover, the observed clustering pattern showed that there might be more diversity amongst the Congolese isolates within the S. 'williamsii' species complex than previously anticipated based on molecular data. Altogether, our results provide novel perspectives on the use of integrative approaches to support sebacinoid and Serendipitaceae taxonomy.

The MADS Box Genes ABS, SHP1, and SHP2 Are Essential for the Coordination of Cell Divisions in Ovule and Seed Coat Development and for Endosperm Formation in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Seed formation is a pivotal process in plant reproduction and dispersal. It begins with megagametophyte development in the ovule, followed by fertilization and subsequently coordinated development of embryo, endosperm, and maternal seed coat. Two closely related MADS-box genes, SHATTERPROOF 1 and 2 (SHP1 and SHP2) are involved in specifying ovule integument identity in Arabidopsis thaliana. The MADS box gene ARABIDOPSIS BSISTER (ABS or TT16) is required, together with SEEDSTICK (STK) for the formation of endothelium, part of the seed coat and innermost tissue layer formed by the maternal plant. Little is known about the genetic interaction of SHP1 and SHP2 with ABS and the coordination of endosperm and seed coat development. In this work, mutant and expression analysis shed light on this aspect of concerted development. Triple tt16 shp1 shp2 mutants produce malformed seedlings, seed coat formation defects, fewer seeds, and mucilage reduction. While shp1 shp2 mutants fail to coordinate the timely development of ovules, tt16 mutants show less peripheral endosperm after fertilization. Failure in coordinated division of the innermost integument layer in early ovule stages leads to inner seed coat defects in tt16 and tt16 shp1 shp2 triple mutant seeds. An antagonistic action of ABS and SHP1/SHP2 is observed in inner seed coat layer formation. Expression analysis also indicates that ABS represses SHP1, SHP2, and FRUITFUL expression. Our work shows that the evolutionary conserved Bsister genes are required not only for endothelium but also for endosperm development and genetically interact with SHP1 and SHP2 in a partially antagonistic manner.

Arabidopsis flower development--of protein complexes, targets, and transport.

Tremendous progress has been achieved over the past 25 years or more of research on the molecular mechanisms of floral organ identity, patterning, and development. While collections of floral homeotic mutants of Antirrhinum majus laid the foundation already at the beginning of the previous century, it was the genetic analysis of these mutants in A. majus and Arabidopsis thaliana that led to the development of the ABC model of floral organ identity more than 20 years ago. This intuitive model kick-started research focused on the genetic mechanisms regulating flower development, using mainly A. thaliana as a model plant. In recent years, interactions among floral homeotic proteins have been elucidated, and their direct and indirect target genes are known to a large extent. Here, we provide an overview over the advances in understanding the molecular mechanism orchestrating A. thaliana flower development. We focus on floral homeotic protein complexes, their target genes, evidence for their transport in floral primordia, and how these new results advance our view on the processes downstream of floral organ identity, such as organ boundary formation or floral organ patterning.

Guanchochroma wildpretii gen. et spec. nov. (Ochrophyta) Provides New Insights into the Diversification and Evolution of the Algal Class Synchromophyceae.

A new relative of the chrysophyte genus Chrysopodocystis was found in Tenerife and termed Guanchochroma wildpretii. This unicellular alga was most noticeably discernible from Chrysopodocystis socialis (the only species of this genus) by the presence of a cyst-like stage with a multilayered lorica, which also functions as a dispersal unit and shows secondary wall growth. Secondary expansion of loricae (cell casings not involved in cell division, usually with a more or less pronounced opening) has never been observed previously and marks a unique feature of the new taxon. Plastids are non-randomly distributed within cells of G. wildpretii. 18S rRNA gene analyses identified the two species as sister lineages and placed them in a monophyletic group with the Synchromophyceae, a heterokont algal (Ochrophyta) class characterized by the presence of chloroplast complexes. Yet, neither Chrysopodocystis nor Guanchochroma showed this feature in ultrastructure analyses. Additionally, their 18S rRNA genes possessed distinct inserts, the highest GC-content known for Ochrophyta and exceptionally long branches on the Ochrophyta 18S rDNA phylogenetic tree, suggesting substantially increased substitution rates along their branch compared to Synchromophyceae. Plastid marker data (rbcL) recovered a monophyletic clade of Chrysopodocystis, Guanchochroma and Synchromophyceae as well, yet with lower supports for internal split order due to limited resolution of the marker. Evidence for the sequence of events leading to the formation of the plastid complex of Synchromophyceae still remains ambiguous because of the apparently short timeframe in which they occurred.

The compromised recognition of turnip crinkle virus1 subfamily of microrchidia ATPases regulates disease resistance in barley to biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens.

MORC1 and MORC2, two of the seven members of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Compromised Recognition of Turnip Crinkle Virus1 subfamily of microrchidia Gyrase, Heat Shock Protein90, Histidine Kinase, MutL (GHKL) ATPases, were previously shown to be required in multiple layers of plant immunity. Here, we show that the barley (Hordeum vulgare) MORCs also are involved in disease resistance. Genome-wide analyses identified five MORCs that are 37% to 48% identical on the protein level to AtMORC1. Unexpectedly, and in clear contrast to Arabidopsis, RNA interference-mediated knockdown of MORC in barley resulted in enhanced basal resistance and effector-triggered, powdery mildew resistance locus A12-mediated resistance against the biotrophic powdery mildew fungus (Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei), while MORC overexpression decreased resistance. Moreover, barley knockdown mutants also showed higher resistance to Fusarium graminearum. Barley MORCs, like their Arabidopsis homologs, contain the highly conserved GHKL ATPase and S5 domains, which identify them as members of the MORC superfamily. Like AtMORC1, barley MORC1 (HvMORC1) binds DNA and has Mn2+-dependent endonuclease activities, suggesting that the contrasting function of MORC1 homologs in barley versus Arabidopsis is not due to differences in their enzyme activities. In contrast to AtMORCs, which are involved in silencing of transposons that are largely restricted to pericentromeric regions, barley MORC mutants did not show a loss-of-transposon silencing regardless of their genomic location. Reciprocal overexpression of MORC1 homologs in barley and Arabidopsis showed that AtMORC1 and HvMORC1 could not restore each other's function. Together, these results suggest that MORC proteins function as modulators of immunity, which can act negatively (barley) or positively (Arabidopsis) dependent on the species.

Involvement of the sieve element cytoskeleton in electrical responses to cold shocks.

This study dealt with the visualization of the sieve element (SE) cytoskeleton and its involvement in electrical responses to local cold shocks, exemplifying the role of the cytoskeleton in Ca(2+)-triggered signal cascades in SEs. High-affinity fluorescent phalloidin as well as immunocytochemistry using anti-actin antibodies demonstrated a fully developed parietal actin meshwork in SEs. The involvement of the cytoskeleton in electrical responses and forisome conformation changes as indicators of Ca(2+) influx was investigated by the application of cold shocks in the presence of diverse actin disruptors (latrunculin A and cytochalasin D). Under control conditions, cold shocks elicited a graded initial voltage transient, ΔV1, reduced by external La(3+) in keeping with the involvement of Ca(2+) channels, and a second voltage transient, ΔV2. Cytochalasin D had no effect on ΔV1, while ΔV1 was significantly reduced with 500 nm latrunculin A. Forisome dispersion was triggered by cold shocks of 4°C or greater, which was indicative of an all-or-none behavior. Forisome dispersion was suppressed by incubation with latrunculin A. In conclusion, the cytoskeleton controls cold shock-induced Ca(2+) influx into SEs, leading to forisome dispersion and sieve plate occlusion in fava bean (Vicia faba).

CRT1 is a nuclear-translocated MORC endonuclease that participates in multiple levels of plant immunity.

Arabidopsis thaliana CRT1 (compromised for recognition of Turnip Crinkle Virus) was previously shown to be required for effector-triggered immunity. Sequence analyses previously revealed that CRT1 contains the ATPase and S5 domains characteristic of Microchidia (MORC) proteins; these proteins are associated with DNA modification and repair. Here we show that CRT1 and its closest homologue, CRH1, are also required for pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity, basal resistance, non-host resistance and systemic acquired resistance. Consistent with its role in PAMP-triggered immunity, CRT1 interacted with the PAMP recognition receptor FLS2. Subcellular fractionation and transmission electron microscopy detected a subpopulation of CRT1 in the nucleus, whose levels increased following PAMP treatment or infection with an avirulent pathogen. These results, combined with the demonstration that CRT1 binds DNA, exhibits endonuclease activity, and affects tolerance to the DNA-damaging agent mitomycin C, argue that this prototypic eukaryotic member of the MORC superfamily has important nuclear functions during immune response activation.

Synchroma pusillum sp. nov. and other new algal isolates with chloroplast complexes confirm the Synchromophyceae (Ochrophyta) as a widely distributed group of amoeboid algae.

Seven new isolates of the heterokont algal class Synchromophyceae are described from coastal habitats of the Atlantic Ocean, including the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas. All of the new isolates contain chloroplast complexes, a key feature of this group of algae. Morphology, pigments and DNA sequences support a monophyletic grouping of the Synchromophyceae to the exclusion of other Ochrophyta (primarily photosynthetic stramenopiles). Within the Synchromophyceae, two phylogenetic clades based on rbcL and 18S rDNA data were discovered, which differ in cell size and also the number of plastid complexes per cell. Two isolates form a clade with the type species Synchroma grande, while all other isolates form a separate clade, including the newly described species S. pusillum. Further species delineation of the isolates is difficult due to the highly similar morphology and life cycle strategy. Phylogenetic relationships with other genera of the Ochrophyta, such as Leukarachnion and Chlamydomyxa, are apparent and shed light on a heterogeneous branch of heterokont evolution.

Do symplasmic networks in cambial zones correspond with secondary growth patterns?

The plasmodesmal (PD) network in the cambial zone of Arabidopsis thaliana hypocotyls was analysed using electron microscopy and dye-coupling studies and compared to those of internodes of Populus nigra and Solanum lycopersicum. In all species, PD densities and frequencies undergo alterations in topologically successive cambial walls reflecting species-specific patterns of PD degradation and PD insertion during cell development. Longitudinal PD fission is responsible for an abrupt increment of PD numbers in specific walls of the youngest derivatives at the xylem and/or phloem side. Here, PDs seem to mediate positional signalling to control tissue fate and early cell determination. PD numbers at all cambial interfaces of A. thaliana correspond to those of the herbaceous tomato, but are higher with the woody poplar. This suggests a positive correlation between PD frequencies and the rapidity of cell division activity. Photoactivated green fluorescent protein (26 kDa) did not diffuse through cambial PDs of A. thaliana. This is in keeping with the common size exclusion limit (SEL) of 8-10 kDa observed for PDs at the youngest interfaces of tomato and poplar which may mediate diffusive exchange of developmental signals of equal molecular size. The regular growth patterns in internodal cambial zones of poplar and tomato result from synchronized cell division activity of neighbouring initials. A. thaliana hypocotyls have an irregular mode of secondary growth. Here, signalling through PDs in misaligned radial walls between non-homologous derivatives may control tissue development. The observed organizational differences between the cambia cast doubts on the suitability of A. thaliana as a model plant for cambial research.

Immunolocalization indicates plasmodesmal trafficking of storage proteins during cambial reactivation in Populus nigra.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Cambium reactivation after dormancy and budbreak in deciduous trees requires a supply of mobilized reserve materials. The pathway and mode of transfer of these materials are poorly understood. METHODS: Transport of reserve materials during cambium reactivation in Populus nigra was investigated by conventional and immunocytochemical TEM analyses, SDS-PAGE, western blotting and intracellular microinjection of fluorescent dyes. KEY RESULTS: Proteinaceous compounds stored in vacuoles and protein bodies of vascular cells and ray cells disappeared within 3 weeks after cambial reactivation and budbreak. Some of these proteins (32 kDa, 30 kDa and 15 kDa) were labelled by lectin antibodies in SDS-PAGE. The same antibodies were localized to plasmodesmata (PDs) between phloem parenchyma, ray cells and fusiform cambial cells. In addition, proteinaceous particles were localized inside the cytoplasmic sleeves of these PDs during budbreak. During this period, the functional diameter of PDs was about 2.2 nm which corresponds approximately to the Stokes' radius of the detected 15-kDa protein. CONCLUSIONS: Lectin-like reserve proteins or their degradation products seem to be transferred through PDs of phloem parenchyma and rays during cambial reactivation and budbreak. PD transfer of storage proteins is a novelty which supports the concept of symplasmic nutrient supply to the cambial region.

Season-associated modifications in symplasmic organization of the cambium in Populus nigra.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Alterations of plasmodesma (PD) connectivity are likely to be very important for plant development. Here, the repetitive division pattern of cambial initials in Populus nigra 'italica' was studied to follow the development of the PD network during maturation. Furthermore, seasonal changes were investigated in order to trace indications for developmental and functional adaptations. METHODS: Cambium samples of P. nigra twigs, collected in summer, autumn and spring, were chemically fixed for transmission electron microscopy. The parameters, PD density (number of PDs per square micrometre cell-wall area) and PD frequency (total number of PDs per average cell-wall area), were determined for radial and tangential cell interfaces deposited in chronological order. KEY RESULTS: Data sets, presented in plasmodesmograms, show a strong variability in the PD network throughout the year. In summer, high PD numbers occur at the division wall which, after PD doubling by longitudinal fission, decline with further development both at the xylem and the phloem side. In autumn, the number of PDs at the division wall is low as they are in subsequent tangential interfaces. In spring, the first cell division coincides with a massive increase in PD numbers, in particular at the division wall. Only the radial walls between initials maintain their PD equipment throughout the year. This feature can be exploited for identification of the initial layer. CONCLUSIONS: PD networks in the cambium go through a strict developmental programme depending on the season, which is associated with changing functional requirements. For instance, PD numbers correlate with proliferative activity and potential pathways for intercellular signalling. Increases in PD numbers are ascribed to longitudinal fission as a major mechanism, whereas the decline in older derivatives is ascribed to PD degradation.

Dynamics of plasmodesmal connectivity in successive interfaces of the cambial zone.

Frequency, density and branching of plasmodesmata were counted in successive tangential and transverse walls in the cambial zone of tomato stems in order to examine development of the plasmodesmal network in a chronological order. Coincident with progress of cell development, plasmodesmal connectivity increased, both at the xylem- and phloem-side. In transverse walls, the number of secondary plasmodesmata enhanced considerably. The same held for tangential walls, with a superimposed plasmodesmal doubling during the first phase of phloem development. This plasmodesmal doubling was interpreted to result from the deposition of wall material between branched plasmodesmal strands. Structural plasmodesmal development was correlated with production of hydroxyl radicals which control local cell wall alterations. Successive phases of plasmodesmal deployment and modification were distinguished which may coincide with differential functional capacities as documented by intracellular injection of fluorochromes. Diffusion-driven symplasmic transport appeared to be transiently interrupted during cell maturation.

Synchroma grande spec. nov. (Synchromophyceae class. nov., Heterokontophyta): an amoeboid marine alga with unique plastid complexes.

Chromist algae including the Heterokontophyta are supposed to have evolved monophyletically by secondary endosymbiosis from a eukaryotic host cell that engulfed a eukaryotic red alga. The red algal endosymbiont was then reduced to a secondary plastid surrounded by four enveloping membranes. On the basis of the amoeboid marine alga Synchroma grande gen. et spec. nov., the Synchromophyceae are described here as a new class of Heterokontophyta. Their taxonomic position is characterized by 18S rRNA and rbcL gene phylogenies, morphology, and pigment composition. The so far unique feature of the Synchromophyceae is the occurrence of conspicuous chloroplast complexes representing multiplastidic red secondary endosymbionts. In these remarkable secondary endosymbionts, several primary chloroplasts are aggregated in a common periplastidial compartment and are collectively enveloped by an additional outer membrane pair. The discovery of this novel plastid morphology is highly relevant for research on algal evolution and is discussed in terms of the postulated monophyletic origin of Chromista.

Multivesicular compartments proliferate in susceptible and resistant MLA12-barley leaves in response to infection by the biotrophic powdery mildew fungus.

There is growing evidence that multivesicular bodies and cell wall-associated paramural bodies participate in the enhanced vesicle trafficking induced by pathogen attack. Here, we performed transmission electron microscopy in combination with cytochemical localization of H2O2 to investigate multivesicular compartments during establishment of compatible interaction in susceptible barley (Hordeum vulgare) and during hypersensitive response in resistant MLA12-barley infected by the barley powdery mildew fungus (Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei). Multivesicular bodies, intravacuolar vesicle aggregates and paramural bodies proliferated in the penetrated epidermal cell during development of the fungal haustorium. These vesicular structures also proliferated at the periphery of intact cells, which were adjacent to the hypersensitive dying cells and deposited cell wall appositions associated with H2O2 accumulation. All plasmodesmata between intact cells and hypersensitive cells were constricted or blocked by cell wall appositions. These results suggest that multivesicular compartments participate in secretion of building blocks for cell wall appositions not only to arrest fungal penetration but also to contain hypersensitive cell death through blocking plasmodesmata. They may also participate in internalization of damaged membranes, deleterious materials, nutrients, elicitors and elicitor receptors.

Sieve elements caught in the act.

Phloem is a puzzling plant tissue owing to the unique natural defence responses of the sieve elements to any kind of mechanical manipulation. Recent non-invasive studies have enabled real-time observation of events in intact sieve tubes, including mass transport, sieve-pore sealing and conformational changes of structural proteins. These studies further highlighted the importance of the symplasmic setting for development and functioning of the sieve elements. Exchange of macromolecules between companion cells and sieve elements is indispensable for the survival of the sieve element, but also seems to be involved in long-distance communication. How the branched plasmodesmata between sieve element and companion cell function as corridors for the passage of macromolecules is an intriguing but unresolved story.