Rodent-borne parasites in Qatar: A possible risk at the human-animal-ecosystem interface.

Rodents are known reservoirs for a diverse group of zoonotic pathogens that can pose a threat to human health. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate these pathogens to institute prevention and control measures. To achieve this, the current study was conducted to investigate the frequency of different parasites in commensal rodents in Qatar. A total of 148 rodents, including Rattus norvegicus, Rattus rattus, and Mus musculus were captured using traps placed in different habitats such as agricultural and livestock farms, residential areas, and other localities. Blood, feces, ectoparasite, and visceral organs were collected for gross, microscopic, immunological, and molecular analysis. The study identified 10 different parasites, including Capillaria annulosa, Eimeria spp., Giardia spp., Hymenolepis diminuta, Mastophorus muris, Ornithonyssus bacoti, Taenia taeniaeformis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma lewisi, and Xenopsylla astia. Overall, 62.2% of the rodents tested positive for at least one parasite species. Helminths were found to be the most prevalent parasites (46.0%), followed by ectoparasites (31.8%), and protozoa (10.1%). However, individually, X. astia was the most prevalent (31.8%), whereas C. annulosa was the least common (0.7%). The prevalence of X. astia and H. diminuta significantly differed between habitats (p < 0.05). The sequence analysis of Hymenolepis spp. was closely related to the previously reported H. diminuta in Iran, China, and Mexico. In conclusion, the study identified a diverse range of rodent-borne parasites that are important to public health, with most of them being recorded for the first time among commensal rodents in Qatar.

A new One Health Framework in Qatar for future emerging and re-emerging zoonotic diseases preparedness and response.

One Health is increasingly recognized as an optimal approach to address the global risk of health threats originating at the human, animal, and ecosystem interface, and their impact. Qatar has successfully practiced One Health approach for investigation and surveillance of zoonotic diseases such as MERS-CoV, and other health threats. However, the current gaps at institution and policy level hinder the sustainment of One Health. In this paper, we have assessed the potential for implementation of One Health Framework to reinforce and sustain One Health capacities in Qatar for 2022-2027. To implement One Health Framework in the country, Qatar Joint External Evaluation (JEE) report, lessons learnt during One Health experiences on zoonotic, vector-borne, and food borne diseases were used to present an outline for multisectoral coordination. In addition, technical capacities of One Health and factors that are required to operationalize it in the country were also assessed in series of meetings and workshops held at Ministry of Public Health on March 2022. Present health care infrastructure and resources were found to be conducive for effective management and response to shared health threats as evident during MERS-CoV, despite being more event based. Regardless, the need for more sustainable capacity development was unanimously emphasized. The consensus between all relevant stakeholders and partners was that there is a need for better communication channels, policies and protocols for data sharing, and the need to invest more resources for better sustainability. The proposed framework is expected to strengthen and facilitate multilateral coordination, enhanced laboratory capacity and network, improve active surveillance and response, risk communication, community engagement, maximize applied research, and build One Health technical work force. This would enable advancement and sustainment of One Health activities to prevent and control health threats shared between humans-animals-ecosystem interface.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in animals of the Arabian Peninsula between 2000-2020: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a zoonotic parasite that can be transmitted from animals to humans, with felids acting as its definitive host. Thus, understanding the epidemiology of this parasite in animal populations is vital to controlling its transmission to humans as well as to other animal groups. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to summarise and analyse reports of T. gondii infection in animal species residing in the Arabian Peninsula. METHODS: It was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), with relevant studies being retrieved from MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar and ScienceDirect. All articles published in Arabic or English languages between January 2000 and December 2020 were screened for eligibility. Random effects model was used to calculate the pooled prevalence of T. gondii infection in different animal populations which were found to harbour this infection. The critical appraisal tool for prevalence studies designed by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) was used to assess the risk of bias in all included studies. RESULTS: A total of 15 studies were retrieved, reporting prevalence estimates from 4 countries in this region and in 13 animal species. Quantitative meta-analysis estimated a pooled prevalence of 43% in felids [95% confidence interval (CI) = 23-64%, I2 index = 100%], 48% in sheep (95% CI = 27-70%, I2 = 99%) and 21% in camels (95% CI = 7-35%, I2 = 99%). Evidence of possible publication bias was found in both felids and sheep. CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis estimates a high prevalence of T. gondii infection in animal species which are of high economic and cultural importance to countries of this region. Hence, these findings provide valuable insight to public health authorities as well as economic and animal resources advisors in countries of the Arabian Peninsula.

The effect of gum Arabic supplementation on cathelicidin expression in monocyte derived macrophages in mice.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are important effectors of the innate defense system. Cathelicidins, (CRAMP in mouse/rat, LL-37 in human) is one of the two major classes of AMPs in humans. The upregulation of LL-37 synthesis is a novel non-antibiotic approach to prevent or treat infectious diseases. Butyrate was found to induce Cathelicidin expression. Gum Arabic (GA), an exudate from Acacia senegaltree, is known for its prebiotic effects. Fermentation of GA by colonic bacteria increases serum butyrate concentrations. This study was conducted to investigate if GA supplementation can increase Cathelicidin expression in macrophages. METHODS: The study was an in-vivo experiment in mice. Thirty mice were randomly divided into three groups, ten mice per group. The two intervention groups received GA dissolved in drinking water in two different concentrations (15% w/v and 30% w/v) for 28 days. The third group served as a control. Blood was collected on Day 29 to isolate peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) which were cultured to obtain monocyte derived macrophages (MDMs). The transcription level of CRAMP was determined in MDMsby qPCR. RESULTS: We detected a significant increase (p = 0.023) in CRAMP expression in MDMs following 28 days of 15% GA supplementation, compared to the control group, but there was no significant change in the group on 30% GA supplementation (p = 0.055). CONCLUSION: GAsupplementation can induce Cathelicidin expression in MDMs and the effect is dose dependent.

RespiCoV: Simultaneous identification of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and 46 respiratory tract viruses and bacteria by amplicon-based Oxford-Nanopore MinION sequencing.

Since December 2019 the world has been facing the outbreak of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Identification of infected patients and discrimination from other respiratory infections have so far been accomplished by using highly specific real-time PCRs. Here we present a rapid multiplex approach (RespiCoV), combining highly multiplexed PCRs and MinION sequencing suitable for the simultaneous screening for 41 viral and five bacterial agents related to respiratory tract infections, including the human coronaviruses NL63, HKU1, OC43, 229E, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. RespiCoV was applied to 150 patient samples with suspected SARS-CoV-2 infection and compared with specific real-time PCR. Additionally, several respiratory tract pathogens were identified in samples tested positive or negative for SARS-CoV-2. Finally, RespiCoV was experimentally compared to the commercial RespiFinder 2SMART multiplex screening assay (PathoFinder, The Netherlands).

Diversity of bacterial pathogens and their antimicrobial resistance profile among commensal rodents in Qatar.

Rodents are sources of many zoonotic pathogens that are of public health concern. This study investigated bacterial pathogens and assessed their antimicrobial resistance (AMR) patterns in commensal rodents in Qatar. A total of 148 rodents were captured between August 2019 and February 2020, and blood, ectoparasites, and visceral samples were collected. Gram-negative bacteria were isolated from the intestines, and blood plasma samples were used to detect antibodies against Brucella spp., Chlamydophila abortus, and Coxiella burnetii. PCR assays were performed to detect C. burnetii, Leptospira spp., Rickettsia spp., and Yersinia pestis in rodent tissues and ectoparasite samples. Antimicrobial resistance by the isolated intestinal bacteria was performed using an automated VITEK analyzer. A total of 13 bacterial species were isolated from the intestine samples, namely Acinetobacter baumannii, Aeromonas salmonicida, Citrobacter freundii, Citrobacter koseri, Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli, Hafnia alvei, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Providencia stuartii, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella enterica. The majority of them were E. coli (54.63%), followed by P. mirabilis (17.59%) and K. pneumoniae (8.33%). Most of the pathogens were isolated from rodents obtained from livestock farms (50.46%), followed by agricultural farms (26.61%) and other sources (22.94%). No antibodies (0/148) were detected against Brucella spp., C. abortus, or C. burnetii. In addition, 31.58% (6/19) of the flea pools and one (1/1) mite pool was positive for Rickettsia spp., and no sample was positive for C. burnetii, Leptospira spp., and Y. pestis by PCR. A total of 43 (38%) bacterial isolates were identified as multidrug resistant (MDR), whereas A. salmonicida (n = 1) did not show resistance to any tested antimicrobials. Over 50% of bacterial MDR isolates were resistant to ampicillin, cefalotin, doxycycline, nitrofurantoin, and tetracycline. The presence of MDR pathogens was not correlated with rodent species or the location of rodent trapping. Seven (11.86%) E. coli and 2 (22.2%) K. pneumoniae were extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) producers. These findings suggest that rodents can be a source of opportunistic bacteria for human and animal transmission in Qatar. Further studies are needed for the molecular characterization of the identified bacteria in this study.

Transmission of yellow fever vaccine virus from breast feeding mothers to their infants: reporting of yellow fever virus (YFV) RNA detection in milk specimens.

Background: Because of yellow fever's serious impact on health, vaccination is the principal strategy to control the disease. Administration of the yellow fever vaccine to breastfeeding women should be before they complete 9 months post-delivery, in order to prevent transmission of the yellow fever vaccine virus to their infants through breast feeding. This study aimed to confirm whether the excretion of yellow fever vaccine virus is in milk of vaccinated breastfeeding mothers and to confirm the probable transmission to their infants through breast milk. Methods: Samples were taken as follows: one serum specimen was taken 3-14 days after the date of the vaccination, and breast milk specimens were taken at four different time points between 3-4 days apart. Specimens were obtained from eight nursing mothers, who received the YVF vaccine (17DD). Mothers were asymptomatic before and after the vaccine administration but their infants developed symptoms after administration. Maternal serum samples were tested for YFV specific IgM antibodies through immuno-fluorescent assay (IFA). RNA was extracted from serum and breast milk specimens and YFV RNA screened using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Results: In total, five mothers (62.5%) were positive for YFV and two mothers (25%) had YFV RNA in serum. Among milk specimens, YFV RNA was detected during the four different mentioned collection times as follows (positive milk specimens/total milk specimens): 3/8 (37.5 %), 4/6 (66.6%) and 1/4(25%). RNA was completely undetectable in the last collection time. Conclusions: YFV transmission from mothers to their babies through breast-feeding was highly probable indicated by the temporal relationship to mother's YF vaccination.

SARS-CoV-2 at the human-animal interphase: A review.

Since its emergence in China in December 2019, COVID-19 remains the recent leading disease of concern drawing the public health attention globally. The disease is known of viral origin and zoonotic nature originating from animals. However, to date neither the source of the spillover nor the intermediate hosts are identified. Moreover, the public health situation is intermittently aggravated by identification of new animals susceptible to the SARS-CoV-2 infection, potentially replicating the virus and maintaining intra and interspecies spread of the disease. Although the role of a given animal and/or its produce is important to map the disease pattern, continuous efforts should be undertaken to further understand the epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2, a vital step to establish effective disease prevention and control strategy. This manuscript attempted to review updates regarding SARS-CoV-2 infection at the human-animal interface with consideration to postulations on the genetic relatedness and origin of the different SARS-CoV-2 variants isolated from different animal species. Also, the review addresses the possible role of different animal species and their produce in transmission of the disease. Also, the manuscript discussed the contamination potentiality of the virus and its environmental stability. Finally, we reviewed the currently instituted measures to prevent and manage the spread of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The manuscript suggested the One Health based control measures that could prove of value for the near future.

Epidemiology and molecular characterization of re-emerged virulent strains of Peste des Petits Ruminants virus among sheep in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan.

BACKGROUND: Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a severe contagious viral disease, which mainly affects small ruminants. PPR is caused by a Morbillivirus that belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae. In this study 12 suspected PPR outbreaks among sheep and goats were investigated in four localities in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan, during 2015-2017. The causative agent was confirmed by a Sandwich Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (sELISA), and a Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) targeting a partial sequence of nucleocapsid protein gene (N- gene) and a partial sequence of fusion protein gene (F- gene). Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis were carried out on six N- gene based RT-PCR products selected from two outbreaks occurred on border and inner localities of Kassala State to determine the circulating lineages of PPRV strains. Identity percentages were determined between isolates in this study and previous Sudanese, and other (African and Asian) isolates which clustered along with them. RESULTS: Out of 30 samples, 22 (73.3%) were positive using sandwich ELISA. From 22 s ELISA positive samples, 17 (77.3%) were positive by Ngene based RT-PCR and only 7(43.8%) out of 16 positive samples by N gene based RT-PCR were positive using Fgene based RT-PCR. The sequencing and phylogenetic analysis confirmed involvement of the lineage IV of PPRV in outbreaks among small ruminants in Kassala State and high identity percentage between our isolates and previous Sudanese and other (African and Asian) isolates. CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates that genetic relationship between PPRV strains circulating in sheep in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan, and PPRV strains characterized as lineage IV in neighboring African countries such as Eretria,Ethiopia, Egypt, and other Asian countries.

Rodent-Related Zoonotic Pathogens at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface in Qatar: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Rodents are one of the most diversified terrestrial mammals, and they perform several beneficial activities in nature. These animals are also important as carriers of many pathogens with public health importance. The current systematic review was conducted to formulate a true depiction of rodent-related zoonoses in Qatar. Following systematic searches on PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science and a screening process, a total of 94 published articles were selected and studied. The studied articles reported 23 rodent-related zoonotic pathogens that include nine bacterial, eleven parasitic, and three viral pathogens, from which the frequently reported pathogens were Mycobacterium tuberculosis (32 reports), Escherichia coli (23), and Salmonella spp. (16). The possible pathway of entry of the rodent-borne pathogens can be the land port, seaports, and airport of Qatar through carrier humans and animals, contaminated food, and agricultural products. The pathogens can be conserved internally by rodents, pets, and livestock; by agricultural production systems; and by food marketing chains. The overall estimated pooled prevalence of the pathogens among the human population was 4.27% (95%CI: 4.03-4.51%; p < 0.001) with significant heterogeneity (I2 = 99.50%). The top three highest prevalent pathogens were M.tuberculosis (30.90%; 22.75-39.04%; p < 0.001; I2 = 99.70%) followed by Toxoplasmagondii (21.93%; 6.23-37.61%; p < 0.001; I2 = 99.30%) and hepatitis E virus (18.29%; 11.72-24.86%; p < 0.001; I2 = 96.70%). However, there is a knowledge gap about the listed pathogens regarding the occurrence, transmission pathways, and rodent role in transmission dynamics at the human-animal-environment interface in Qatar. Further studies are required to explore the role of rodents in spreading zoonotic pathogens through the One Health framework, consisting of zoologists, ecologists, microbiologists, entomologists, veterinarians, and public health experts in this country.

Dengue Virus Infection in Sub-Saharan Africa Between 2010 and 2020: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Dengue virus (DENV) infection has garnered a global interest in the past few decades. Nevertheless, its epidemiology in certain developing and low-income regions remains poorly understood, due to the absence of comprehensive surveillance and reporting systems. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine the prevalence of DENV infection in the population of Sub-Saharan Africa using DENV infection markers, and to track any changes in its prevalence during the past ten years. It was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, targeting the literature available at MEDLINE/PubMed, ScienceDirect, Cochrane library and Google Scholar. All articles published in English language between January 2010 and June 2020 were screened for eligibility. Random effects model was used to calculate the pooled prevalence of all infection markers. The Inconsistency Index (I2) was used to assess the level of heterogeneity between studies. Subgroup analysis according to country and time-frame of studies was conducted to provide possible explanations to substantial heterogeneity. The critical appraisal tool for prevalence studies designed by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) was used to assess the risk of bias in all included studies. A total of 84 articles, covering 21 countries, were included in this review. Quantitative meta-analysis estimated a pooled IgG prevalence of 25% (95% CI: 21-29%, I2 = 99%), a pooled IgM prevalence of 10% (95% CI: 9-11%, I2 = 98%) and a pooled DENV RNA prevalence of 14% (95% CI: 12-16%, I2 = 99%). Evidence for possible publication bias was also found in all three meta-analyses. Subgroup analysis according to the time of sample collection was performed to closely track the changing prevalence of DENV infection markers between 2010 and 2019. This meta-analysis estimates a high prevalence of DENV infection in Sub-Saharan Africa. More cost-efficient vector control strategies should be designed and implemented in order to adapt to the low-resource nature of this region.

A Survey of Bluetongue Infection and Associated Risk Factors among the One-Humped Camel (Camelus dromedaries) in Gadarif State, Eastern Sudan.

Bluetongue (BT) is an infectious, noncontagious, vector-borne viral disease that affects wild and domestic ruminants transmitted by Culicoides spp. A cross-sectional study was carried out during the period 2016-2017 in Gadarif state. A total of 276 sera samples were collected from camels in six localities of Gadarif state, eastern Sudan, to investigate bluetongue virus (BTV) seroprevalence and associated risk factors of BTV infection including age, sex, breed, locality, and ecology of the region. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used for estimation of BTV seroprevalence rate. The overall BTV seroprevalence rate was 96.7% in the study area ranging from 93.5% to 100% in six screened localities with no significant differences. The findings revealed similar BTV seroprevalence rates in both males and females, but high rates were found in age group of less than one year and two to three years with estimated 100%. However, the lowest seroprevalence was found in the age group of five to four years with estimated BTV to be 92.3%. BTV seropositivity was not found to be statistically associated with examined different camel breeds which revealed 93%, 94.4%, 97.6%, and 97.8% seroprevalence in Bushari, Rashide, Arabi, and Anafi, breeds, respectively. Epidemiology of BTV assessment according to the ecology of the area showed high BTV seroprevalence in desert and savanna with estimated 100% and lower BTV seroprevalence in arid and rich savanna with estimated 94.8% and 95.7%, respectively. There was no significant association between BTV ELISA positivity and sex, breed, and ecology of the area.

Fully automated point-of-care differential diagnosis of acute febrile illness.

BACKGROUND: In this work, a platform was developed and tested to allow to detect a variety of candidate viral, bacterial and parasitic pathogens, for acute fever of unknown origin. The platform is based on a centrifugal microfluidic cartridge, the LabDisk ("FeverDisk" for the specific application), which integrates all necessary reagents for sample-to-answer analysis and is processed by a compact, point-of-care compatible device. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A sample volume of 200 µL per FeverDisk was used. In situ extraction with pre-stored reagents was achieved by bind-wash-elute chemistry and magnetic particles. Enzymes for the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) were pre-stored in lyopellet form providing stability and independence from the cold chain. The total time to result from sample inlet to read out was 2 h. The proof-of-principle was demonstrated in three small-scale feasibility studies: in Dakar, Senegal and Khartoum, Sudan we tested biobanked samples using 29 and 9 disks, respectively; in Reinfeld, Germany we tested spiked samples and analyzed the limit of detection using three bacteria simultaneously spiked in whole blood using 15 disks. Overall during the three studies, the FeverDisk detected dengue virus (different serotypes), chikungunya virus, Plasmodium falciparum, Salmonella enterica Typhi, Salmonella enterica Paratyphi A and Streptococcus pneumoniae. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The FeverDisk proved to be universally applicable as it successfully detected all different types of pathogens as single or co-infections, while it also managed to define the serotype of un-serotyped dengue samples. Thirty-eight FeverDisks at the two African sites provided 59 assay results, out of which 51 (86.4%) were confirmed with reference assay results. The results provide a promising outlook for future implementation of the platform in larger prospective clinical studies for defining its clinical sensitivity and specificity. The technology aims to provide multi-target diagnosis of the origins of fever, which will help fight lethal diseases and the incessant rise of antimicrobial resistance.

Prevalence and risk factors of Hantavirus infection in patients undergoing hemodialysis in Khartoum, Sudan, in 2019: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Hantaviruses are enveloped negative sense RNA viruses that cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of Hantavirus IgG antibodies and possible risk factors for Hantaviruses infections among end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients attending the Dr Salma dialysis center in Sudan. METHODOLOGY: This was a cross-sectional study in which 91 ESRD patients and 30 healthy plasma samples were screened for Hantavirus IgG antibodies using ELISA. A questionnaire containing sociodemographics, history of rat exposure and clinical data information was filled in by each ESRD patient. RESULTS: In this study, 9 out of 91 ESRD patients (9.9%) tested positive for Hantaviruses antibodies (IgG) while none of the 30 healthy plasma samples showed seropositivity. There was no statistically significant association between age, gender, educational level and rat exposure and Hantavirus infection in ESRD patients (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: This study is the first to be conducted in Sudan regarding Hantaviruses and ESRD. The prevalence of Hantavirus antibodies among ESRD patients is high compared with findings reported in the literature from studies conducted on the same group of patients. It points to an interesting question as to whether Hantaviruses have an association with ESRD but further studies are needed before drawing any conclusions.

Prevalence of Antibodies to Simbu Serogroup Viruses in Cattle in Sudan.

The Simbu serogroup is one of the serogroups that belong to the Orthobunyavirus genus of the family Peribunyaviridae. Simbu serogroup viruses are transmitted mainly by Culicoides biting midges. Meager information is available on Simbu serogroup virus infection in ruminants in Sudan. Therefore, in this study, serological surveillance of Simbu serogroup viruses in cattle in seven states in Sudan was conducted during the period from May, 2015, to March, 2016, to shed some light on the prevalence of this group of viruses in our country. Using a cross-sectional design, 184 cattle sera were collected and tested by a commercial SBV ELISA kit which enables the detection of antibodies against various Simbu serogroup viruses. The results showed an overall 86.4% prevalence of antibodies to Simbu serogroup viruses in cattle in Sudan. Univariate analysis showed a significant association (p=0.007) between ELISA seropositivity and states where samples were collected. This study suggests that Simbu serogroup virus infection is present in cattle in Sudan. Further epizootiological investigations on Simbu serogroup viruses infection and virus species involved are warranted.

Occult hepatitis B virus infection in Sudan: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

In its occult form, hepatitis B virus infection can only be detected using molecular techniques such as polymerase chain reaction, increasing the cost of the screening process. Certain population subgroups are considered to have a higher risk of transmission and reactivation of occult hepatitis B virus infection (OBI). This review aims to estimate the prevalence of OBI among these high-risk groups in Sudan. It was conducted under the PRISMA guidelines, targeting the literature available in MEDLINE/PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library databases. Full-text articles published in the last 10 years that provide prevalence estimates of OBI in Sudan were examined for fulfillment of eligibility criteria. Quality assessment of selected articles was performed using the critical appraisal tool reported by Munn et al. Publication bias was assessed by visual examination of the funnel plot. Meta-analysis using the random-effects model with 95% confidence interval was used to calculate the overall and subgroup pooled prevalence of OBI. Literature search yielded a total of 717 studies, of which only 11 articles fulfilled all selection criteria. The overall pooled prevalence of OBI was found to be 15.51%, with a high level of heterogeneity. Subgroup analysis demonstrated a prevalence of 16.48% among blood donors, 13.36% among hemodialysis patients, and 12.59% among febrile patients. Evidence for possible publication bias was detected. This review provides crucial evidence for health authorities in Sudan, outlining the necessity for re-evaluation of the current screening strategies, especially among these high-risk groups.

Serological Investigations of Bluetongue Virus (BTV) among Sheep and Goats in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan.

Bluetongue (BT) is an infectious, noncontagious, vector-borne viral disease of wild and domestic ruminants. BTV is a member of the Orbivirus genus of the family Reoviridae. The present study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of BTV in sheep and goats in Kassala State, Sudan. It also aimed to determine risk factors associated with BTV infection. The study was carried out by a structured questionnaire survey, and a total of 809 serum samples were collected from sheep (n = 459) and goats (n = 350) from 9 different localities in Kassala state. These samples were analyzed using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) for the detection of BTV antibodies. The overall seroprevalence of BTV was 91.2% (738/809). In goats, the prevalence of BTV antibodies was comparatively higher (100%) than in sheep (84.5%). The prevalence differed between localities and was the highest in the center section of Kassala and Western Kassala (100%). Animals aged 6-11 months were highly infected (93.9%) compared to 1-year-old (85.5%). Caprine species was more likely to be infected (100%) than ovine (84.5%), and females were highly infected (92.8%) than males (85.5%). BTV infections were higher in the winter season (91.4%). Risk factors that showed significant associations with cELISA positivity included locality and sex (p ≤ 0.003) and species and age (p ≤ 0.000). Factors significantly associated with cELISA positivity in multivariate analysis were localities, species, age, and sex. BTV infection is prevalent in sheep and goat populations in Kassala state.

First report on molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Reticuloendotheliosis virus in Sudan.

The reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) group of retroviruses infects a wide range of avian species, including chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, quail, and prairie chickens. The infection can result in immunosuppression, runting syndrome, high mortality, acute reticular cell neoplasia, or T- and/or B-cell lymphoma. One PCR positive chicken spleen sample obtained in a previous study in addition to one Marek's disease and three fowl pox (FP) vaccine samples were investigated in this study. A PCR assay was performed to detect the presence of REV provirus DNA in these samples. The results indicated the contamination of fowl pox virus and Marek's disease vaccines with REV. In addition, detection of integration of REV inside the genome of fowl pox vaccine was confirmed using primers corresponding to the FPV DNA regions flanking the REV integration site. Alignments of two sequences, one from the spleen tissue and the other from contaminated FP vaccine with REV, with other REV (env) gene sequences obtained from GenBank indicated their high similarity. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis indicated that the partial part of (env) gene of our two isolates was closely related to variants from India, USA, Taiwan, and China. These results confirmed the contamination of commercial fowl pox and Marek's disease vaccines used in Sudan with REV. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the partial part of (env) gene sequences from Sudan was closely related to variants from India, USA, Taiwan, and China.

A molecular prevalence survey on Anaplasma infection among domestic ruminants in Khartoum State, Sudan.

This study was conducted in Khartoum State, Sudan to determine the prevalence and the risk factors associated with Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species infections in domestic ruminants. Blood samples were collected from a total of 594 animals from 32 different farms distributed in the three provinces of Khartoum State. Among the 196 cattle, 200 sheep, and 198 goats examined using PCR, 13.27%, 32.50%, and 35.86% were infected with Anaplasma spp., respectively, with an overall prevalence of 27.27%. Cattle were infected with A. marginale (10.71%), A. centrale (2.04%), and A. ovis (0.51%), while sheep and goats were infected with A. ovis being significantly higher compared with cattle. No Ehrlichia spp. was detected in domestic ruminant in Khartoum State. Prevalence rates of Anaplasma infections were highly associated with breed, location, season, and sex. The prevalence rates of Anaplasma infection were significantly higher in exotic goat breeds compared with indigenous, and the infection in sheep and cattle was significantly higher in summer and in autumn in goats. The Anaplasma spp. infection rate in goats was significantly higher in females. The infection rate was also significantly higher in Khartoum North in both sheep and goats. It could be concluded that Anaplasma infection is prevalent in small and large ruminants in Khartoum State. Therefore, further studies on the epidemiology of anaplasmosis, possible tick, lice, and flea vectors and reservoirs in Sudan are important.

Analysis of hepatitis B virus-mixed genotype infection by ultra deep pyrosequencing in Sudanese patients, 2015-2016.

PURPOSE: The frequency of detection of HBV co-infection with multiple HBV genotypes is influenced by the detection method; usually co-infections are detected by multiplex PCR or hybridization assays, and are rarely confirmed by sequencing and conventional cloning. The objective of this study was to confirm by ultra-deep pyrosequencing (UDPS) mixed HBV infections, previously detected by multiplex-nested PCR. METHODS: Sixteen samples from HBV co-infected Sudanese patients detected by multiplex-nested PCR, were amplified targeting the P/S region and sequenced by UDPS. RESULTS: The only genotypes identified using UDPS were D and E, while A, B, C and F genotypes, previously detected by multiplex-nested PCR, were not detected. Specifically, 10 samples were shown to be mono-infected (D or E); in 3 out of 10 mono-infected D patients, a subtype combination was observed: D1 + D7 in 2 cases and D2 + D6 in 1 case. The remaining 6 subjects were D + E co-infected (harboring different mixtures of D subtypes). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, UDPS is more effective than multiplex-nested PCR for identifying multiple HBV genotypes and subtypes infections.