Verminous pneumonia in European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus).

The European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) is a common wildlife species in European countries. Populations are declining due to anthropogenic factors and natural diseases. Verminous pneumonia has been observed as a frequent infectious disease in hedgehogs submitted for diagnostic postmortem examination. This prompted the present in-depth investigation on the lungs of 27 necropsied hedgehogs with confirmed lungworm infections, with or without antiparasitic treatment prior to death. The histological and/or parasitic (fecal samples) examination identified Capillaria aerophila infection in most animals (82%). The parasites were found free in the airway lumen and/or within the airway epithelium, from the larynx to bronchioles. Embedded worms and eggs were associated with epithelial hyperplasia or metaplasia, and long-term inflammation. More than half of the animals (59%) carried Crenosoma striatum, and 41% had a coinfection. C striatum adults were predominantly found free in the lumen of bronchi and bronchioles, and larvae were occasionally seen in granulomas in the pulmonary interstitium, the liver, and the intestine. Independent of the parasite species, a lymphoplasmacytic peribronchitis and, less frequently, interstitial infiltration of eosinophils, neutrophils, and macrophages as well as pneumocyte type II hyperplasia was seen. Interestingly, the extent of pneumonia was not correlated with age, respiratory clinical signs, antiparasitic treatment, or single or coinfection. Verminous pneumonia appeared to be the cause of death in over 25% of the animals, indicating that these parasites not only coexist with hedgehogs but can also be a primary pathogen in this species.

Natural Infection of a European Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) with Francisella tularensis subsp. Holarctica.

Postmortem examination and immunohistochemical and bacteriologic analyses on a free-ranging European red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) revealed a systemic infection with Francisella tularensis. Genome sequencing and single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis were consistent with F. tularensis subs. holarctica clade B.45. Tularemia has not previously been reported in this species.

Feeding the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus L.)-risks of commercial diets for wildlife.

The supplemental feeding of wildlife is a worldwide phenomenon. The most widespread and socially accepted example is bird feeding. Commercial hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus L.) diets are readily available in Switzerland. To test the hypothesis that commercial hedgehog diets are nutritionally inadequate, the following parameters (as taken from the label) of five commercial diets (three dry and two wet) were compared to the natural diet of E. europaeus: List of feed materials, crude ash (CA), crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE) and nitrogen-free extracts (NfE). To test the second hypothesis, that feed labels of commercially available hedgehog diets in Switzerland are in accordance with Swiss and European law, the following parameters were assessed: Type of feed, net quantity, moisture content, instructions for proper use, list of the feed materials and claims. In all dry diets, the first ingredient was cereals (38.8%-50%), whereas in both wet diets, it was meat and meat by-products (51% in one product). Only one product had a CP content comparable to that of the natural diet and four products had a higher NfE content. Overall, the wet products were more comparable to the natural diet, especially regarding CP and NfE content. Of the five examined diets, three were labelled as complete feeds and two as compound feeds. The label analysis revealed inaccuracies and possible misleading information on two products. In conclusion, the use of commercial dry hedgehog diets should be discouraged as they do not resemble the natural diet of E. europaeus and are likely nutritionally inadequate. The commercial wet hedgehog diets should only be used supplementary. The feed labels of commercially available hedgehog diets were not always in compliance with Swiss and European law. The public should be educated about feeding E. europaeus and the risks of commercial diets for wildlife.

Digestive physiology of the plains viscacha (Lagostomus maximus): A large herbivorous hystricomorph rodent.

Plains viscachas (Lagostomus maximus) are large South American, fossorial rodents susceptible to diabetic cataracts. Various aspects of their digestive physiology were studied in three different experiments with nine male and seven female adult animals and six different diets (total n of feeding trials = 35). Viscachas achieved mean retention times of 23­31 hr, which is of a magnitude also recorded in horses; these did not differ for solute or small particle (<2 mm) markers. Secondary marker excretion peaks indicated coprophagy, and were rarer on high-protein as compared to grass hay-only diets. Mean resting metabolic rate was, at 229 kJ/kg0.75/day, lower than expected for a mammal of this size. Digestible energy requirement for maintenance was 445 kJ/kg0.75/day. At 1.6­2.7 L/day, viscachas produced more methane than expected for a hindgut fermenter of their size. On diets that included concentrate feeds, viscachas excreted glucose in their urine, corroborating reports on the susceptibility of this species for diabetes when kept on energy-dense food. Viscachas had a similar apparent digestibility of protein, lipids, and macrominerals as other rodents, rabbits, or domestic horses. This suggests that whether or not a species practices coprophagy does not have a major influence on these measures. Viscachas resemble other hindgut fermenters in their high apparent calcium digestibility. With respect to a digestibility-reducing effect of dietary fiber, viscachas differed from rabbits and guinea pigs but were similar to horses, suggesting that small body size needs not necessarily be linked to lower digestive efficiency on high-fiber diets.

Emergence and establishment of Usutu virus infection in wild and captive avian species in and around Zurich, Switzerland--genomic and pathologic comparison to other central European outbreaks.

In late summer 2006 considerable mortality in wild and captive Passeriformes and Strigiformes was observed in Zurich, Switzerland. All animals were found in a range of 2 km(2). Observed clinical signs involved depression, ruffled plumage, incoordination, seizures and peracute death. Nutritional status was generally moderate to poor in wild birds, and variable in captive animals. Necropsy showed marked splenomegaly, a mild hepatomegaly, and pulmonary hyperemia in most animals. Histopathologic lesions were very discrete and consisted mainly of neuronal necrosis, leucocytolysis in and around the brain blood vessels, and miliary liver necrosis. The diagnosis Usutu virus (USUV) infection was established by USUV-specific immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Partial nucleotide sequence comparisons revealed>99% identity between the viruses that emerged in Zurich in 2006, in Vienna in 2001, and in Budapest in 2005. Since 2008 a significantly lower mortality was observed in wild Passeriformes, but USUV infection was confirmed for the first time beyond Zurich city limits. Indoor housing and regular treatment against ectoparasites are likely to have prevented acute USUV disease in captive Strigiformes. USUV is a mosquito-borne flavivirus causing fatalities in various avian species. After the initial European outbreaks in Austria in 2001 it appears that the virus has extended its range in Central Europe and has established a transmission cycle between local bird and mosquito species. Further episodes of increased avian mortality in the forthcoming years, with impact on wild and captive bird populations, predominantly Passeriformes and Strigiformes, can be anticipated. Furthermore, the possibility of broader dispersal of USUV in Europe during the next mosquito seasons must be considered and an increased mortality in Passeriformes and Strigiformes must be expected until protective "flock immunity" is established. Collections of valuable and endangered Passeriformes and Strigiformes, especially young of the year, should therefore be housed indoors or treated against ectoparasites at acceptable intervals between July and September each year.

Humoral immune response to avian influenza vaccination over a six-month period in different species of captive wild birds.

In December 2005, the four major Swiss zoos carried out the vaccination of selected zoo birds with the adjuvant inactivated vaccine H5N2 Nobilis influenza. Pre- and post-vaccination antibody titers were determined either by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test (non-Galliformes) or by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (Galliformes) at Week 0, 5, 10, and 26 (Day 0-1, 35-36, 70-71, and 182 respectively) to determine the humoral immune response to H5 antigen. After the first vaccination, the overall geometric mean titer of non-Galliformes was 65 (n = 142), which increased to 187 (n = 139) after booster vaccination and dropped to 74 (n = 65) six months after first vaccination. For the Galliformes group, the mean titers were found to be 2.09 at Week 5 (n = 119), 3.24 at Week 10 (n = 113), and 1.20 at Week 26 (n = 39). Within the non-Galliformes, significant differences in geometric mean titers were found among different species representatives. In general, the flamingos (Phoenicopteriformes) showed a strong response to vaccination, reaching a geometric mean titer of 659 at Week 10, while the Sphenisciformes did not show high antibody titers even after booster vaccination, reaching a maximum geometric mean titer of only 65. Based on the antibody titer profiles of all investigated species, we recommend at least annual revaccination for the species that we investigated.