Geographic isolation and long-distance gene flow influence the genetic structure of the blue fan palm Brahea armata (Arecaceae).

The formation of the Baja California Peninsula (BCP) has impacted the microevolutionary dynamics of different species in ways that depend on biological traits such as dispersal capacity. Plants with relatively low levels of vagility have exhibited high genetic divergence between the BCP and Continental mainland. Brahea armata (Arecaceae) is a palm species inhabiting the northern part of the BCP and Sonora; its distribution occurs in isolated oases of vegetation. We aimed to evaluate the influence of the formation of the BCP on the genetic structure of B. armata using nuclear microsatellites and chloroplast markers (cpDNA) to compare patterns of genetic diversity and structure with previous published studies. Because gene flow through seeds is usually more limited compared to pollen flow, we expect to find stronger genetic structure at (cpDNA) than at nuclear markers. Moreover, larger genetic structure might also be explained by the smaller effective population size of cpDNA. We analyzed six microsatellite markers and two cpDNA regions. The main results indicated high levels of genetic differentiation among isolated populations located in the BCP, while low genetic differentiation was found between southern populations of the BCP and Sonora, suggesting long distance gene flow. In contrast, chloroplast markers indicated high levels of genetic structure between BCP and Sonora populations, suggesting asymmetrical gene flow between pollen (measured by nuclear microsatellites) and seed (cpDNA markers). This study provides valuable information on genetic diversity of B. armata that can be relevant for conservation and management; and develops microsatellites markers that can be transferred to other Brahea species.

Ancient inhabitants of the Basin of Mexico kept an accurate agricultural calendar using sunrise observatories and mountain alignments.

In the hot dry spring of monsoon-driven environments, keeping an accurate calendar to regulate the annual planting of crops is of critical importance. Before the Spanish conquest, the Basin of Mexico had a highly productive farming system able to feed its very large population. However, how they managed to keep their farming dates in synchrony with the solar year is not known. In this paper, we show that the observation of sunrise against the Basin's eastern horizon could have provided an accurate solar calendar and that some important sunrise landmarks coincide well with the themes of seasonal festivities described in early codices. We also show that a long stone causeway in the summit of Mount Tlaloc aligns perfectly with the rising sun on February 23 to 24, in coincidence with the Basin's new year in the Mexica calendar. Third, we demonstrate that, when viewed from the sacred Mount Tepeyac in the bottom of the Basin, sunrise aligns with Mount Tlaloc also on February 24. The importance of Mount Tlaloc as a calendric landmark seems to be corroborated by illustrations and texts in ancient Mexica codices. Our findings demonstrate that by using carefully developed alignments with the rugged eastern horizon, the inhabitants of the Basin of Mexico were able to adjust their calendar to keep in synchrony with the solar year and successfully plan their corn harvests.

Precision of mangrove sediment blue carbon estimates and the role of coring and data analysis methods.

Carbon accumulation in coastal wetlands is normally assessed by extracting a sediment core and estimating its carbon content and bulk density. Because carbon content and bulk density are functionally related, the latter can be estimated gravimetrically from a section of the core or, alternatively, from the carbon content in the sample using the mixing model equation from soil science. Using sediment samples from La Paz Bay, Mexico, we analyzed the effect that the choice of corer and the method used to estimate bulk density could have on the final estimates of carbon storage in the sediments. We validated the results using a larger dataset of tropical mangroves, and then by Monte Carlo simulation. The choice of corer did not have sizable influence on the final estimates of carbon density. The main factor in selecting a corer is the operational difficulties that each corer may have in different types of sediments. Because of the multiplication of errors in a product of two variables subject to random sampling error, when using gravimetric estimates of bulk density, the dispersion of the data points in the estimation of total carbon density rises rapidly as the amount of carbon in the sediment increases. In contrast, the estimation of total carbon density using only the carbon fraction as a predictor is very precise, especially in sediments rich in organic matter. This method, however, depends critically on the accurate estimation of the two parameters of the mixing model: the bulk density of pure peat and the bulk density of pure mineral sediment. The estimation of carbon densities in peaty sediments can be very imprecise when using gravimetric bulk densities. Estimating carbon density in peaty sediments using only the estimate of organic fraction can be much more precise, provided the model parameters are estimated with accuracy. These results open the door for simplified and precise estimates of carbon dynamics in mangroves and coastal wetlands.

Relict inland mangrove ecosystem reveals Last Interglacial sea levels.

Climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene played a major role in shaping the spatial distribution and demographic dynamics of Earth's biota, including our own species. The Last Interglacial (LIG) or Eemian Period (ca. 130 to 115 thousand years B.P.) was particularly influential because this period of peak warmth led to the retreat of all ice sheets with concomitant changes in global sea level. The impact of these strong environmental changes on the spatial distribution of marine and terrestrial ecosystems was severe as revealed by fossil data and paleogeographic modeling. Here, we report the occurrence of an extant, inland mangrove ecosystem and demonstrate that it is a relict of the LIG. This ecosystem is currently confined to the banks of the freshwater San Pedro Mártir River in the interior of the Mexico-Guatemala El Petén rainforests, 170 km away from the nearest ocean coast but showing the plant composition and physiognomy typical of a coastal lagoon ecosystem. Integrating genomic, geologic, and floristic data with sea level modeling, we present evidence that this inland ecosystem reached its current location during the LIG and has persisted there in isolation ever since the oceans receded during the Wisconsin glaciation. Our study provides a snapshot of the Pleistocene peak warmth and reveals biotic evidence that sea levels substantially influenced landscapes and species ranges in the tropics during this period.

Prioritizing mangrove conservation across Mexico to facilitate 2020 NDC ambition.

There is a scale mismatch between mangrove conservation and carbon emission mitigation policies despite mangroves contributing disproportionally to global carbon sequestration. Using Mexico as a case study in the integration of these scales, we estimate mangrove carbon value and deforestation rates at the municipio (local government) scale and develop a prioritization model that indicates where to focus conservation efforts. By using previously published global models of carbon stocks, Mexico-specific carbon sequestration data, and calculating gross deforestation, we found that the current rate of deforestation will result in a social cost of 392.0 (± 7.4) million US$ over the next 25 years. The prioritization model identified 26 municipios of 175, where if all mangroves are conserved, 50% of this cost could be avoided. Bridging the gap between research and governmental action using local initiatives will be paramount for the effective management of mangrove carbon.

How dietary transition changed land use in Mexico.

The nutrition transition towards western diets in developing countries occurs at multiple levels, impacting health and society and also the environment. In Mexico, the shift in food consumption and production patterns, particularly in relation to animal source foods (ASF), has changed land use. We studied the consumption and production of ASF and change in agricultural land use in Mexico during the second half of the twentieth century and until 2013; using domestic and international data sources, our findings show an increasing proportion of farmed area devoted to the production of feed crops domestically, and also an increasing demand of farmed feed beyond national borders. We discuss how the intensification of livestock production is associated to major environmental threats and suggest that opportunities are available for sustainable and healthy food options.

Functional variants of DOG1 control seed chilling responses and variation in seasonal life-history strategies in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The seasonal timing of seed germination determines a plant's realized environmental niche, and is important for adaptation to climate. The timing of seasonal germination depends on patterns of seed dormancy release or induction by cold and interacts with flowering-time variation to construct different seasonal life histories. To characterize the genetic basis and climatic associations of natural variation in seed chilling responses and associated life-history syndromes, we selected 559 fully sequenced accessions of the model annual species Arabidopsis thaliana from across a wide climate range and scored each for seed germination across a range of 13 cold stratification treatments, as well as the timing of flowering and senescence. Germination strategies varied continuously along 2 major axes: 1) Overall germination fraction and 2) induction vs. release of dormancy by cold. Natural variation in seed responses to chilling was correlated with flowering time and senescence to create a range of seasonal life-history syndromes. Genome-wide association identified several loci associated with natural variation in seed chilling responses, including a known functional polymorphism in the self-binding domain of the candidate gene DOG1. A phylogeny of DOG1 haplotypes revealed ancient divergence of these functional variants associated with periods of Pleistocene climate change, and Gradient Forest analysis showed that allele turnover of candidate SNPs was significantly associated with climate gradients. These results provide evidence that A. thaliana's germination niche and correlated life-history syndromes are shaped by past climate cycles, as well as local adaptation to contemporary climate.

Controls of plant diversity and composition on a desert archipelago.

AIM: With the most robust floristic data set for any arid archipelago, we use statistical modeling to determine the underlying controls of plant diversity and species composition. LOCATION: The study was undertaken in the Midriff Islands of the Gulf of California, Mexico. METHODS: Using the area-diversity relationship we estimate the power coefficient z with generalized linear models (GLM). We tested eight predictors (area, human presence, habitat diversity, topography, distance to mainland, island type, precipitation, and seabird dynamics) using a step-wise process on the same GLM procedure. Plant species composition was assessed by conducting a non-standardized principal component analysis on a presence-absence matrix of the 476 (plant species) × 14 (islands). Finally, families were tested for over or under representation with a X 2 analysis subjected to a Bonferroni correction. RESULTS: The classic species-area model explained 85% of the variance in island plant diversity and yielded a slope (z) of 0.303 (±0.01). When the effect of area is removed, four additional factors were shown to account for observed variation; habitat diversity (34%), seabird dynamics (23%), island type (21%), topography (14%). Human presence and distance to mainland were not predictors of species richness. Species composition varies significantly with island area; small islands have a particular flora where certain families are overrepresented, such as Cactaceae, while the flora of larger islands is strongly dependent on the continental source. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: The factors that control diversity levels are expressions of geology, landscape heterogeneity, and land-sea connections. Species assemblages in small islands are governed by copious marine nutrients in the form of guano that depress species diversity. Distance to mainland and human presence hold no predictive power on diversity. The results show these islands to be isolated arid ecosystems with functioning ecological networks.

Costs and benefits of photosynthetic stems in desert species from southern California.

Woody plants with green photosynthetic stems are common in dry woodlands with the possible advantages of extra carbon gain, re-assimilation of CO2, and high water-use efficiency. However, their green stem tissue may also incur greater costs of water loss when stomata are closed. Our study focussed on evaluating the costs and benefits of having green stems in desert plants, addressing the water-use efficiency hypothesis. We measured water status, carbon and water exchange, and carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopic composition of 15 species in a desert wash scrub in Joshua Tree National Park, California, USA. We found that all woody species that have green stems relied on their green stems as the sole organ for carbon assimilation for most of the study period. Green stems had similar photosynthetic rate (Amax), stomatal conductance (gs) and intrinsic water-use efficiency (WUEi) to leaves of the same species. However, Amax, gs and cuticular conductance (gmin) were higher in green stems than in leaves of non-green stemmed species. Carbon isotopic composition (δ13C) was similar in both leaves and green stems, indicating no difference in integrated long-term WUE. Our results raise questions about the possible trade-off between carbon gain and water loss through the cuticle in green stems and how this may affect plant responses to current and future droughts.

Pillar of strength: Columnar cactus as a key factor in Yoreme heritage and wildland preservation.

The persistence of traditional cultures and modes of land use within rapidly changing, globalized societies is a central issue in understanding ecological and cultural change in the Anthropocene. Located in the heart of the Green Revolution, the Yoreme (Mayo) people of the Mayo Valley in Mexico still obtain a significant proportion of their sustenance from wild ecosystems in the midst of this intensive technological and agricultural development. They live in and around the thornscrub dominated by pitaya (Stenocereus thurberi (Engelm.) Buxb.). In this study, we hypothesize that pitaya supports Yoreme heritage and sustenance amidst anthropogenic changes to the landscape, and we asked three specific questions: What is the land-use status of the S. thurberi habitat? What are its potential uses? Does S. thurberi provide economic value? To address these questions, we conducted interviews, vegetation surveys, and land-use analysis based on geographic information systems. We found that (a) land conversion of the pitaya-rich thornscrub is occurring at a precipitous rate, (b) local producers preserve and adapt their traditions, and (c) S. thurberi supports Yoreme heritage while providing economic benefit. The resulting land-use projections along with the cultural value of pitaya products shows the importance of conserving land and promoting sustainable projects instead of clearing land for other uses. If habitat shrinking continues at the current rate, it is likely that both Yoreme livelihoods and continued cultural practices will suffer.

Correction: A spatial method to calculate small-scale fisheries effort in data poor scenarios.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174064.].

A spatial method to calculate small-scale fisheries effort in data poor scenarios.

To gauge the collateral impacts of fishing we must know where fishing boats operate and how much they fish. Although small-scale fisheries land approximately the same amount of fish for human consumption as industrial fleets globally, methods of estimating their fishing effort are comparatively poor. We present an accessible, spatial method of calculating the effort of small-scale fisheries based on two simple measures that are available, or at least easily estimated, in even the most data-poor fisheries: the number of boats and the local coastal human population. We illustrate the method using a small-scale fisheries case study from the Gulf of California, Mexico, and show that our measure of Predicted Fishing Effort (PFE), measured as the number of boats operating in a given area per day adjusted by the number of people in local coastal populations, can accurately predict fisheries landings in the Gulf. Comparing our values of PFE to commercial fishery landings throughout the Gulf also indicates that the current number of small-scale fishing boats in the Gulf is approximately double what is required to land theoretical maximum fish biomass. Our method is fishery-type independent and can be used to quantitatively evaluate the efficacy of growth in small-scale fisheries. This new method provides an important first step towards estimating the fishing effort of small-scale fleets globally.

Coastal landforms and accumulation of mangrove peat increase carbon sequestration and storage.

Given their relatively small area, mangroves and their organic sediments are of disproportionate importance to global carbon sequestration and carbon storage. Peat deposition and preservation allows some mangroves to accrete vertically and keep pace with sea-level rise by growing on their own root remains. In this study we show that mangroves in desert inlets in the coasts of the Baja California have been accumulating root peat for nearly 2,000 y and harbor a belowground carbon content of 900-34,00 Mg C/ha, with an average value of 1,130 (± 128) Mg C/ha, and a belowground carbon accumulation similar to that found under some of the tallest tropical mangroves in the Mexican Pacific coast. The depth-age curve for the mangrove sediments of Baja California indicates that sea level in the peninsula has been rising at a mean rate of 0.70 mm/y (± 0.07) during the last 17 centuries, a value similar to the rates of sea-level rise estimated for the Caribbean during a comparable period. By accreting on their own accumulated peat, these desert mangroves store large amounts of carbon in their sediments. We estimate that mangroves and halophyte scrubs in Mexico's arid northwest, with less than 1% of the terrestrial area, store in their belowground sediments around 28% of the total belowground carbon pool of the whole region.

Warm oceanographic anomalies and fishing pressure drive seabird nesting north.

Parallel studies of nesting colonies in Mexico and the United States show that Elegant Terns (Thalasseus elegans) have expanded from the Gulf of California Midriff Island Region into Southern California, but the expansion fluctuates from year to year. A strong inverse relationship between nesting pairs in three Southern California nesting areas [San Diego saltworks, Bolsa Chica Ecological Reserve, and Los Angeles Harbor (1991 to 2014)] and Isla Rasa in the Midriff (1980 to 2014) shows that terns migrate northward when confronting warm oceanographic anomalies (>1.0°C), which may decrease fish availability and hamper nesting success. Migration pulses are triggered by sea surface temperature anomalies localized in the Midriff and, secondarily, by reductions in the sardine population as a result of intensive fishing. This behavior is new; before year 2000, the terns stayed in the Midriff even when oceanographic conditions were adverse. Our results show that terns are responding dynamically to rapidly changing oceanographic conditions and fish availability by migrating 600 km northwest in search of more productive waters.

The human footprint in Mexico: physical geography and historical legacies.

Using publicly available data on land use and transportation corridors we calculated the human footprint index for the whole of Mexico to identify large-scale spatial patterns in the anthropogenic transformation of the land surface. We developed a map of the human footprint for the whole country and identified the ecological regions that have most transformed by human action. Additionally, we analyzed the extent to which (a) physical geography, expressed spatially in the form of biomes and ecoregions, compared to (b) historical geography, expressed as the spatial distribution of past human settlements, have driven the patterns of human modification of the land. Overall Mexico still has 56% of its land surface with low impact from human activities, but these areas are not evenly distributed. The lowest values are on the arid north and northwest, and the tropical southeast, while the highest values run along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and from there inland along an east-to-west corridor that follows the Mexican transversal volcanic ranges and the associated upland plateau. The distribution of low- and high footprint areas within ecoregions forms a complex mosaic: the generally well-conserved Mexican deserts have some highly transformed agro-industrial areas, while many well-conserved, low footprint areas still persist in the highly-transformed ecoregions of central Mexico. We conclude that the spatial spread of the human footprint in Mexico is both the result of the limitations imposed by physical geography to human development at the biome level, and, within different biomes, of a complex history of past civilizations and technologies, including the 20th Century demographic explosion but also the spatial pattern of ancient settlements that were occupied by the Spanish Colony.

Strategic Actions to Value, Conserve, and Restore the Natural Capital of Megadiversity Countries: The Case of Mexico.

Decisionmakers need updated, scientifically sound and relevant information to implement appropriate policy measures and make innovative commitments to halt biodiversity loss and improve human well-being. Here, we present a recent science-based synthesis on the biodiversity and ecosystem services of Mexico, intended to be a tool for policymakers. We describe the methodological approach used to undertake such an assessment and highlight the major findings. Organized into five volumes and originally written in Spanish (Capital Natural de México), it summarizes the available knowledge on the components, structure, and functioning of the biodiversity of Mexico; the threats and trajectories of anthropogenic impact, together with its conservation status; and the policies, institutions, and instruments available for its sustainable management. We stress the lessons learned that can be useful for similar exercises in other megadiverse developing countries and identify major gaps and strategic actions to conserve the natural capital in light of the challenges of the Anthropocene.