Use and perception of collars for companion cats in New Zealand.

AIMS: To investigate the use and utility of collars for companion cats in New Zealand, and to explore public perception of collar use. METHODS: An online questionnaire was distributed using emails and social media to members of the general public in New Zealand. The questionnaire collected details of respondents, cat ownership status, and responses to a number of questions regarding collar use in cats. RESULTS: A total of 511 responses were collected. Of these, 393/511 (76.9%) reported owning ≥1 cat at the time of the survey, and 141/393 (35.9%) stated that ≥1 of their cats wore collars and 211/393 (53.7%) had ≥1 of their cats micro-chipped. Of the respondents with a pet cat, 351/393 (89.3%) allowed their cats some outdoor access. Respondents mainly used collars for identification and to reduce predation. Reasons for not using collars included cat intolerance of collars, repeated collar loss and concern over collar safety. Differences were found between cat owners and non-owners regarding whether they agreed that cats were important for pest control (43 vs. 25%, p<0.001); that not all cats will tolerate collars (81 vs. 64%, p<0.001); that cats should be kept indoors at night (37 vs. 58%, p<0.001); or disagreed that well fed cats will not catch birds (60 vs. 70%, p=0.04); and disagreed that a cat without a collar was likely to be a stray (85 vs. 76%, p<0.001). Respondents most trusted veterinarians and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals as sources of pet care information. CONCLUSIONS: Collar use within this sample of cat owners in New Zealand appeared to be low, with more using microchips for identification. The majority of cat owners in this study indicated their cats had some outdoor access, with collars being used for cat identification and to reduce hunting behaviour. Significant differences existed in opinions on cat management between cat owners and non-owners in this study. It should be noted that this preliminary exploration was based on a self-selected group of respondents and so results and conclusions cannot be extrapolated to the wider population. RELEVANCE: As the most trusted source of information about pet care, an enhanced understanding of cat ownership and management may be of use to veterinarians to promote responsible pet ownership and to develop national policies and practices to improve cat welfare.

An exploration of attitudes towards pedigree dogs and their disorders as expressed by a sample of companion animal veterinarians in New Zealand.

AIMS: To explore veterinary perceptions of inherited disorders in pedigree dogs within New Zealand and how these affect animal health and welfare. METHODS: An online questionnaire was distributed to the 647 members of the Companion Animal Society of the New Zealand Veterinary Association using an online survey system. The questionnaire collected details of practitioners, pedigree dog breeds and disorders most often encountered in practice, and responses to questions and statements regarding inherited disorders and pedigree dogs. RESULTS: Of the 216 respondents, 194 (89.8%) believed inherited disorders in dogs were a significant issue. The most commonly identified breeds presenting with inherited disorders were Boxer, Bulldog and German Shepherd dog. The most commonly reported inherited disorders were hip dysplasia, brachycephalic syndromes and elbow dysplasia. Of 207 respondents, 100 (48.3%) had advised clients against purchasing a pedigree dog due to common inherited disorders and 183 (85.6%) considered the health and welfare of some breeds to be too compromised to continue breeding. Of 199 respondents, 132 (66.3%) reported seeing no change in prevalence of inherited conditions, 103/204 (50.5%) reported seeing a positive change in attitudes towards inherited disorders among dog owners, and 81/207 (39.1%) thought legislative support would help decrease inherited disorders in pedigree dogs. Attitudes were not associated with time since graduation or ownership of a New Zealand Kennel Club registered breed of dog. The most common suggestions to decrease prevalence of inherited disorders were to alter breed standards, educate public or buyers and compulsory genetic testing. CONCLUSIONS: Among respondents, veterinarians considered inherited disorders as significant issues in a number of pedigree breeds. Veterinarians were concerned about inherited disorders in pedigree dogs, felt they had an obligation to treat such animals and were supportive of measures to make genetic testing for inheritable disorders a requirement for registration of pedigree breeds. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Prevalence and perceived importance of inherited disorders influences how clinicians advise their clients. Respondents to this survey provided a number of mechanisms by which inherited disorders may be managed and these could form the basis of future discussions within the profession.

Veterinary attitudes towards pre-pubertal gonadectomy of cats: a comparison of samples from New Zealand, Australia and the United Kingdom.

AIM: To compare the attitudes and practices of a sample of veterinarians in New Zealand, Australia and the United Kingdom (UK) towards pre-pubertal gonadectomy of cats. METHODS: Respondents' demographics were gathered using an electronic questionnaire distributed via professional veterinary associations in the target countries, as were minimum age at gonadectomy and typical age of puberty. Desirability of prepubertal gonadectomy was gauged using three response categories ('yes', 'no' or 'sometimes'), respondents were then able to justify the response given. Two-way Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) followed by post hoc Tukey HSD tests were used to test whether there were differences in minimum ages for gonadectomy within and between countries and between providers and non-providers of services to pounds (or animal welfare centres). Views on the desirability of prepubertal gonadectomy relative to demographics were explored using a Likelihood Ratio Test. RESULTS: The survey received 717 responses. Most respondents believed pre-pubertal gonadectomy was either entirely or 'sometimes' desirable (556/621), few thought it was undesirable (65/621). Minimum age at gonadectomy was significantly affected by country surveyed and provision or non-provision of services for pounds. Post hoc Tukey HSD analysis indicated the mean age of both spaying and castration (4.3 months) in the UK was significantly different from both Australia (spaying: 3.4 months, castration: 3.2 months) and New Zealand (spaying: 3.4 months, castration: 3.2 months) (all p<0.001). Mean ages at spaying and castration were also significantly different (p= 0.008; p= 0.019, respectively) for non-providers (spaying: 3.9 months, castration: 3.8 months) of services to pounds when compared to providers (spaying and castration: both 3.6 months). Likelihood Ratio Tests indicated significant effects amongst countries and between genders relative to the desirability of pre- pubertal gonadectomy. Respondents from the UK were more likely to answer 'no' (p = 0.004) or 'sometimes' (p = 0.050) as compared to those from New Zealand or Australia. Females were more likely to respond with 'sometimes' as opposed to 'yes' than males. Reasons for considering pre-pubertal gonadectomy desirable or sometimes desirable focussed on reducing unwanted pregnancies and improving population control, as well as improving rates of adoption, owner compliance and cat behaviour and health. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In general, pre-pubertal gonadectomy is considered a desirable procedure by those practitioners that responded to the survey. However age at which any such procedure occurs differs depending upon a number of factors. Differences among countries may relate to the specific veterinary association's guidelines or possibly differences in social discourse which affect perception of cats. There is substantial overlap between the reported minimum age of gonadectomy and the age at which cats can enter early puberty, allowing a window for unintentional pregnancy when pre-pubertal gonadectomy does not occur.

Attitudes towards perception and management of pain in rabbits and guinea pigs by a sample of veterinarians in New Zealand.

AIMS: To determine the perceptions of a sample of veterinarians in New Zealand regarding pain and pain management in rabbits and guinea pigs. METHODS: Questionnaires were distributed to all members of the Companion Animal Society, part of the New Zealand Veterinary Association. The questionnaire gathered information on the demographics of respondents, obtained an assessment by veterinarians of the level of pain associated with clinical procedures for rabbits and guinea pigs, established the willingness of respondents to perform these, obtained information on the anaesthetics and analgesics used during these procedures, and the factors associated with selecting different types of drug. The level of knowledge of respondents and interest in continuing education regarding pain recognition and management in these species was also assessed. RESULTS: A total of 155/610 (25.4%) responses were obtained. Rodents and lagomorphs accounted for 0-5% of the total caseload in the practices of most (133/155; 86%) respondents. Anticipated pain scores differed for different procedures (p<0.001) but did not differ between male and female respondents or between species of animal. There were also differences between procedures in the respondents willingness to perform them (p<0.001). Selection of anaesthetics and analgesics was mainly determined by the amount of information available for the species, and ketamine was the drug most commonly used. Many veterinarians felt their level of knowledge regarding the recognition and treatment of pain in rabbits and guinea pigs was inadequate. CONCLUSIONS: Rabbits and guinea pigs represented a small percentage of the caseload of veterinarians in this study. From an animal welfare perspective this may be of concern as, anecdotally, these species are common pets. However, further study regarding the actual number of these animals kept as pets in New Zealand is required for validation. Veterinary perception of anticipated pain, and willingness to perform procedures, varied between procedures, but was not influenced by gender of veterinarian. Many respondents felt their knowledge of issues relating to pain recognition, anaesthesia and analgesia in rabbits and guinea pigs was inadequate. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Understanding how veterinarians choose to provide analgesia or when they decline to perform surgeries for rabbits and guinea pigs may provide significant information for targeting professional development, and improving animal welfare.

A survey of owners' perceptions of fear of fireworks in a sample of dogs and cats in New Zealand.

AIMS: To establish reliable information regarding the behavioural responses of dogs and cats to fireworks in New Zealand; record interventions used by owners, and their perceived efficacies; and establish the prevalence of firework-related injury, and quantify owners' attitudes towards fireworks. METHODS: A questionnaire targeting dog and cat ownerswas distributed via the Auckland Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) Animals Voice magazine and 25 veterinary clinics. The questionnaire covered demographics of animals, fear of fireworks, severity of the fear, and behaviours exhibited. Also included were treatments tried, source and perceived efficacy, prevalence of injury, and owners' attitudes towards the sale of fireworks for private use. RESULTS: From a total of 8,966 questionnaires distributed, 1,007 valid questionnaires were returned, representing 3,527 animals. Of these 1,635 (46%) animals displayed a level of fear of fireworks recognisable to their owners. Owners of dogs identified a significantly higher fear response than owners of cats but the duration of these fear responses did not differ between species. Fear of fireworks frequently resulted in dogs exhibiting active fear behaviours, whereas cats were more likely to exhibit hiding and cowering behaviours. A significantly increased severity and duration of fear response over time in dogs and cats was associated with owners who comforted them when they displayed a fearful response. Only 141/890 (15.8%) of owners sought professional treatment from a veterinarian, animal behaviourist or animal trainer for their animals, with variable efficacy. Six percent (51/923) of animals had received physical injuries from fireworks. The majority (837/1,007; 83%) of respondents, regardless of whether they owned a fearful animal or not, supported a ban on the sale of fireworks for private use. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide valuable information that is, as yet, unsubstantiated in New Zealand, although potential biases exist due to the non-random selection of respondents. Differences between dogs and cats were likely due to differing responses to fear-provoking stimuli between the species. Owner-reported increase in fearful response over time for comforted animals may indicate a negative impact on the longer-term psychological welfare of their animal. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The greater the awareness of effective treatment plans for animals that suffer from a fear of fireworks, the greater the possibility that this fear can be reduced. Wider dissemination of effective owner behaviour and treatment programmes for firework fears is needed to improve levels of professional treatment for dogs and cats.

Public awareness in New Zealand of animal welfare legislation relating to cats.

AIMS: To ascertain the levels of awareness of legislation governing the welfare of cats, and provision of basic care, including vaccination, by cat owners within two locations in New Zealand. To assess the ability of respondents to differentiate between the terms 'stray' and 'feral'. METHODS: A face-to-face questionnaire, consisting of 12 questions in three sections, was distributed by volunteers within Auckland (n=255) and Kaitaia (n=99) to gather information pertinent to the study's aims. Section 1 covered respondents' personal details; Section 2, ownership and care of cats, including whether or not the cats were vaccinated against feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukaemia virus (FeLV); and Section 3, awareness of legislation and differences between the terms 'stray' and 'feral'. RESULTS: Overall, fewer than half of respondents were aware of the animal welfare legislation within New Zealand or the semantic differences between the terms 'stray' and 'feral' as they appear in the dictionary. Respondents >or=41 years old, and individuals employed in the animal-related sector, were significantly more likely to be aware of the legislation and make the correct distinction between the terms compared with those aged

Bayesian analysis of genetic associations of skin lesions and behavioural traits to identify genetic components of individual aggressiveness in pigs.

There is increasing interest in genetic selection against behavioural traits that impact negatively on welfare and productivity in commercial livestock production. Post-mixing aggressiveness in pigs shows wide phenotypic variation, affects health, welfare and growth performance and is a routine feature of production. A Bayesian approach was used to estimate the heritability of three traits associated with aggressiveness in pigs during the 24 h post-mixing; duration in reciprocal aggression, and in receipt of, or delivery of non-reciprocal aggression (NRA). For the purposes of genetic selection, recording aggressive behaviour is excessively labour intensive. The genetic correlations were quantified between the behavioural traits and an easily measurable indicator trait; the number of skin lesions following mixing (lesion score, LS). The heritabilities for the three behavioural traits ranged from 0.17 to 0.46 (receipt of NRA and reciprocal aggression respectively). The duration in reciprocal aggression and in delivery of NRA showed a strong genetic correlation (r g = 0.79 with 95% Bayesian credibility interval of 0.62-0.94). The genetic correlation between LS and these two behaviours indicated that selection on breeding values of LS could be used to reduce aggressiveness. The duration in receipt of NRA appeared to be regulated by different genes or genomic effects compared with the other behavioural traits and LS. Although duration in receipt of NRA was not genetically associated with LS, it was lowly but significantly environmentally associated with the residuals of central and caudal LS (r e = 0.28-0.32), indicating that pigs that received NRA also received bites on the central and caudal third of the body. The pen that the animals were mixed into was found to be a very important factor for the analysed traits, in particular those representing behavioural characteristics. Based on the estimated genetic parameters, it is concluded that selection on breeding values for reduced LS (especially central LS) is expected to reduce reciprocal aggression and the delivery of NRA but will not change the receipt of NRA directly.

Identification of an alginate-based formulation of paraquat to reduce the exposure of the herbicide following oral ingestion.

The herbicide paraquat has been widely used throughout the world for almost 50 years and is important in sustainable agriculture. When used correctly the chemical poses no known risk to human health. However, it is acutely toxic, and can be fatal, if the concentrated product is ingested orally. Despite many years of research there is no successful treatment for paraquat intoxication. In recent years we have turned our attention to understanding how we can make the product safer, if it is accidentally or intentionally consumed. We present in this paper a novel approach aimed at safening the paraquat product, Gramoxone. Following our previous research on the site and mechanism of paraquat absorption from the gastrointestinal tract we have identified a new formulation of paraquat, Gramoxone INTEON that reduces the absorption of paraquat into the blood. This new formulation contains the polysaccharide, alginate, a natural product extracted from sea-weed. We have designed a preparation of paraquat and alginate with surfactants that is herbicidally active but has the unique property that it gels on contact with gastric acid in the stomach. The resulting mixture slows the dispersion and delivery of the toxic chemical to its site of absorption in the small intestine. Alginates also protect the mucosa against the damaging influence of topical gastric irritants, like paraquat. Our studies have shown that increasing the loading of alginate between 7 and 17 g/L causes a dose-related reduction in paraquat absorption in vitro in isolated rat ileum. This is also observed in vivo, as measured by paraquat plasma kinetics in the rabbit where the Area Under Curve (AUC 0-24h) was reduced from 33.8+/-3 for Gramoxone to 12.5+/-6 (microg/mL)h for a formulation containing 17 g/L alginate. Such a reduction in systemic exposure to paraquat is expected to reduce the acute oral toxicity of the formulation. This should be particularly effective in a vomiting species such as man since we have shown in this investigation that alginates not only reduce the peak plasma paraquat values but also delay the time to peak levels. This provides the opportunity for a more effective emetic response since the highly viscous gelled material should remain in the stomach for longer than the liquid Gramoxone. Further research is required to understand and optimise the safening and herbicidal characteristics of these alginate acid-triggered gel formulations of paraquat. However, we anticipate that this alginate technology in Gramoxone INTEON could have significant benefit in reducing human mortalities associated with the herbicide.

Effect of intestinal microflora on the urinary metabolic profile of rats: a (1)H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy study.

1. Analysis of urine by (1)H-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is used to detect biochemical disturbances predictive of toxicological changes. Recent studies, using (1)H-NMR spectroscopy have suggested that Alderley Park rats can be classified as hippuric acid (HA) or m-(hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid (m-HPPA) excretors. Evidence exists for the role of intestinal microflora in the excretion of aromatic phenolic compounds including HA and m-HPPA. 2. We sought to investigate whether intestinal microflora contribute to the difference in excretion. Urinary HA and m-HPPA levels were monitored to characterize excretion over time. The effect of intestinal microflora on the (1)H-NMR spectrum was also investigated using antibiotics to sterilize the intestine. Finally, the levels of m-HPPA and phenylpropionic acid (a precursor for HA) were analysed in the caecum and colon (entire tissue, including contents). 3. Characterization confirmed the presence of HA and m-HPPA excretors; enquiries revealed that the rats were obtained from two floors within a barriered breeding unit. Housing the rats from the two floors together for 21 days resulted in comparable levels of HA and m-HPPA excretion demonstrating that the profiles are not stable. 4. Following antibiotic treatment, HA and m-HPPA excretion decreased, indicating that intestinal microflora contribute to the excretion of these compounds. Finally, m-HPPA levels were higher in the colon of rats that excreted m-HPPA whilst PPA was increased in the caecum and colon of rats that excreted HA. 5. These results demonstrate that the observed difference in HA/m-HPPA excretion is due to differences in the intestinal microflora.

The reproductive toxicity of molinate and metabolites to the male rat: effects on testosterone and sperm morphology.

Molinate causes an impairment in reproductive capability in the male rat. Administration of molinate to rats (40 mg/kg/day for 7 days) caused a distinctive sperm lesion. At higher doses of molinate (140 mg/kg for 7 days) this lesion was accompanied by morphological changes to the testis that were consistent with a delayed release of the late spermatids to the seminiferous tubular lumen, a process controlled by the release of testosterone. In accordance with this, molinate (>/=40 mg/kg) caused a marked decrease in the concentration of circulating and testicular testosterone. The Leydig cells of the testis appear to be the primary target site in that radiolabel from [3H]molinate specifically localized within this cell type. In addition, esterase activity in the Leydig cells was inhibited following molinate administration. In vitro, molinate is a poor inhibitor of esterase activity, whereas molinate sulfoxide, a major metabolite of molinate in rats, and molinate sulfone were shown to be potent inhibitors of this process, suggesting that metabolic activation of molinate is required in vivo. Molinate sulfoxide (>/=10 mg/kg) caused an identical sperm lesion to that of molinate and markedly decreased plasma and testicular testosterone concentration. These effects were not seen with the molinate metabolites 4-hydroxymolinate (10 mg/kg), molinate sulfone (10 mg/kg), and hexamethyleneimine (10 mg/kg). Since the sperm lesion is a secondary event caused by a disruption of spermatogenesis, this would imply that the testis lesion and the reproductive impairment are also a consequence of molinate sulfur oxidation.

No changes in behaviour, nigro-striatal system neurochemistry or neuronal cell death following toxic multiple oral paraquat administration to rats.

We have examined whether the widely used herbicide, paraquat (1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'dipyridylium) may accumulate in rat brain following multiple oral dosing (5 mg paraquat ion/kg/day) for 14 days and whether this dosing regime may produce signs of neurotoxicity. This dosing regime may determine whether low dose exposure to mammals may be neurotoxic. Using [14C]paraquat to measure tissue and plasma paraquat concentrations, we observed significantly higher plasma and tissue paraquat concentrations in brain, liver, lungs and kidneys of rats which received multiple doses for 14 days, as compared to paraquat concentrations in tissues of rats which received only a single paraquat dose. Brain paraquat concentrations measured 24 h after dosing were tenfold higher in rats receiving 14 daily oral doses of paraquat, as compared to concentrations following a single oral dose. A neuropathological study of the rat brain yielded no evidence that multiple paraquat dosing resulted in neuronal cell damage. Particular attention was paid to the nigrostriatal system. The paraquat treated rats gained approximately 10% less body weight over the 15 day experimental period as compared with controls demonstrating that the dose of paraquat was toxic to the animals. Measurements of locomotor activity using open field tests or activity monitors did not reveal any statistically significant differences between control animals and those receiving paraquat. Fore- and hind-limb grip strength were not significantly different between the paraquat treated and control rats at any time point during the dosing regime, nor was there any evidence for locomotor coordination deficits in any of the animals receiving paraquat. Densities of dopamine D1 and D2, NMDA, muscarinic and benzodiazepine receptors in the cerebral cortex and striatum were not significantly different between controls and rats which had received multiple paraquat doses. Concentrations of catecholamine neurotransmitters in the striatum, hypothalamus and frontal cerebral cortex were also measured to examine whether there was evidence for catecholamine depletion in these brain regions. We did not observe any significant reductions in dopamine, noradrenaline or DOPAC concentrations in any brain region of paraquat treated rats as compared with controls. On the contrary, dopamine concentrations in the striatim were significantly elevated in paraquat treated animals following a 15 day paraquat dosing regime. We attribute these changes in catecholamine concentrations to the general toxicity of paraquat which produces a stress response. In conclusion, we could not find any evidence that multiple paraquat dosing can lead to changes in locomotor activity or grip strength. In addition, the absence of neuropathology or changes in neurochemistry in the nigrostriatal tract demonstrates that paraquat does not behave like MPP+(N-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium), the neurotoxic metabolite of MPTP.

Influence of age on the passage of paraquat through the blood-brain barrier in rats: a distribution and pathological examination.

Experiments were performed to determine the extent of paraquat entry into the brain of neonatal and elderly rats, as compared with adult rats, which may be dependent on the efficacy of the blood-brain barrier. A single, median lethal dose (20 mg/kg s.c.) of paraquat containing [14C]paraquat was administered to neonatal (10 day old), adult (3 month old) and elderly (18 month old) rats. In contrast to the adult and elderly rats where paraquat levels fell over the 24 h post-dosing period to negligible levels, paraquat concentrations in neonatal brains did not decrease with time between 0.5 and 24 h following dosing. The distribution of [14C]paraquat was measured in selective brain regions using quantitative autoradiography in all three age groups of rats, 30 min and 24 h following dosing. Autoradiography demonstrated that brain paraquat distributions were similar in the rat age groups. Most of the paraquat was confined to regions outside the blood-brain barrier and to brain regions that lack a complete blood-brain barrier e.g. dorsal hypothalamus, area postrema and the anterior olfactory bulb. Between 0.5 h and 24 h following dosing, paraquat concentrations in deeper brain structures, some distance away from the sites of entry, began to slowly increase in all the rat age groups. By 24 h following dosing, a majority of brain regions examined using quantitative autoradiography revealed significantly higher paraquat concentrations in neonatal brains as compared to brain regions of adult and elderly rats. Despite increased paraquat entry into neonatal brain, we could find no evidence for paraquat-induced neuronal cell damage following a detailed histopathological examination of perfused-fixed brains. In conclusion, impaired blood-brain barrier integrity in neonatal brain thus permitting more paraquat to enter than in adult brain, did not result in neuronal damage.