Acute inflammation with induction of anaphylatoxin C5a and terminal complement complex C5b-9 associated with multiple intra-articular injections of hylan G-F 20: a case report.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this case report was to investigate local immune mechanisms present during an acute inflammatory flare initiated by viscosupplementation with hylan G-F 20 in a patient with osteoarthritis (OA) and past meniscectomy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A patient with a history of bilateral OA and partial left knee meniscectomy, who had received three injections of hylan G-F 20, was diagnosed with an acute flare reaction in the left knee. Her chart was evaluated for clinical, radiological, and laboratory findings and for clinical follow-up. Histopathological synovial examination and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for genes with major roles in local inflammation and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for markers of complement activation and cytokines were performed. To study the impact of the inflammatory and immune features we compared the case patient with groups of three representative OA and three rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. RESULTS: The patient exhibited evidence of highly increased acute phase reactant C-reactive protein (CRP) in the blood. The pathological examination of the synovial membrane identified abundant fibrinous exudate with numerous particles of hyaluronan surrounded by a dense infiltrate of neutrophils and eosinophils. The synovium had moderate hypertrophy and sclerosis as well as an inflammatory infiltrate predominantly composed of T lymphocytes and macrophages with scattered perivascular eosinophils and neutrophils. Immunoperoxidase staining identified numerous deposits of C5b-9 in the fibrinous exudates and the synovial membrane of the patient. Similar findings were observed in the RA patients, whereas deposits were rare in OA synovial samples. In addition, both anaphylatoxin C5a and the terminal complement complex C5b-9 were present at high levels, comparable to those in RA patients. The levels of mRNA for interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß), IL-6, and the neutrophil marker myeloperoxidase (MPO) were markedly increased compared to those in the RA and OA patients. CONCLUSIONS: This present study is indicative of a pseudo-septic acute inflammatory reaction in response to local accumulation of hylan G-F 20 with the activation of complement and local invasion of pro-inflammatory cells.

Mucoid degeneration of the anterior cruciate ligament.

A case of intraligamentous mucoid degeneration of the anteromedial band of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is presented. The patient had knee pain without clinical or diagnostic evidence of instability. Isolated debridement of the anteromedial band resulted in immediate pain relief with rapid return to athletic activities without instability. We present this case to demonstrate the presence of intraligamentous mucoid degeneration in the ACL as a source of knee pain without instability. Partial ACL debridement did not preclude adequate knee stability.

Arthroscopic bankart repair: experience with an absorbable, transfixing implant.

The use of arthroscopic means to address shoulder instability has provided a technically advantageous way to approach Bankart lesions while posing complex questions regarding the specific indications for such an intervention. A successful outcome with arthroscopic Bankart repair is a function of proper surgical indication and patient selection. Several authors have evaluated the causes of failure and reasons for success with the Suretac device. The development of a bioabsorbable repair device at the authors' institution was precipitated by a desire to address and repair Bankart lesions arthroscopically while avoiding the frequent complications associated with the metal staple and the transglenoid suture technique. The Suretac represents the first generation of bioabsorbable transfixing devices. The initial objectives of the Suretac device were to adequately and dynamically tension soft tissue to bone, while providing a bioabsorption profile that mirrored the native healing response. The Suretac device is an appropriate surgical tool for arthroscopically repairing Bankart lesions in a carefully selected patient population.

The developmental anatomy of the neonatal glenohumeral joint.

The embryologic development of the capsular ligaments, synovial lining, rotator cuff, and bony structures of the shoulder is incompletely understood. The purpose of this study is to report the gross and microscopic anatomy of the developing glenohumeral joint on the basis of dissections of fetal shoulder specimens. After Institutional Review Board approval from our hospital, 51 shoulders in 37 fetal specimens were obtained from cases of fetal demise. The gestation time of these specimens ranged from 9 to 40 weeks. The morphology of the capsule, labrum, and associated ligaments were studied by dissection under a dissecting microscope. High-resolution radiographs were made, and sections were processed for routine histology. There was noted to be minimal variation in the shape and slope of the acromion. The coracoid was much larger in relation to the shoulder than in the mature shoulder. The coracoacromial ligament was grossly evident at this stage of development, with distinct anterolateral and posteromedial bands in this ligament. The inferior glenohumeral ligament was seen as a prominent thickening in the capsule, whereas the middle and superior glenohumeral ligaments were thinner and more difficult to identify as distinct structures. Upon histologic examination, the inferior glenohumeral ligament was seen to consist of several layers of organized collagen fibers. The inferior glenohumeral ligament inserted into the labrum and margin of the glenoid. The capsule was much thinner in the region superior to the inferior glenohumeral ligament. A rotator interval capsular defect was often present, and the coracohumeral ligament was seen as a distinct structure as early as 15 weeks. A bare spot in the glenoid was not observed. This study indicates that some of the important functional elements of the structure of the mature human shoulder are present early in development, including the glenohumeral and coracohumeral ligaments. The coracoacromial ligament plays a significant role in the formation of the coracoacromial arch in the neonatal shoulder. The presence of a capsular rotator interval indicates that this aspect of capsular anatomy is congenital.

Multiplanar analysis of acromion morphology.

To more completely describe acromion morphology and its relationship to impingement syndrome, we performed three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging (N = 111) or computed tomography (N = 27) on 132 symptomatic shoulders. The mean patient age was 46.2 years (range, 14 to 86). Four parameters were evaluated: the angle of anterior slope of the acromion in the midsagittal and lateral-sagittal planes, lateral acromial angulation in the coronal plane, and the presence or absence of medial encroachment in the acromioclavicular joint. Twenty-five asymptomatic age-matched shoulders were used as controls. All imaging data were combined because no significant differences existed between the two imaging techniques. The mean acromion angle was 19.4 degrees in the midsagittal plane and 20 degrees in the lateral-sagittal plane. In the coronal plane, 97 (73%) acromions were neutral and 35 (27%) were downward sloping. Medial encroachment was present in 31 (24%) shoulders. Age distribution from the 2nd to 8th decade demonstrated a consistent and gradual transition from a flat acromion in the younger decades to a more hooked acromion in the older decades that was significant in both the midsagittal and lateral-sagittal planes. Furthermore, a greater percentage of patients were found to have downward angulating acromions with increasing age. Ninety-eight patients (74%) had stage II or III impingement. Of these shoulders, 39 (40%) had type I acromions, 51 (52%) type II, and 8 (8%) type III. Twenty-eight of 33 acromions with coronal lateral downward sloping had impingement, and all 31 shoulders with medial encroachment had impingement.

The active compression test: a new and effective test for diagnosing labral tears and acromioclavicular joint abnormality.

Labral tears and acromioclavicular joint abnormalities were differentiated on physical examination using a new diagnostic test. The standing patient forward flexed the arm to 90 degrees with the elbow in full extension and then adducted the arm 10 degrees to 15 degrees medial to the sagittal plane of the body and internally rotated it so that the thumb pointed downward. The examiner, standing behind the patient, applied a uniform downward force to the arm. With the arm in the same position, the palm was then fully supinated and the maneuver was repeated. The test was considered positive if pain was elicited during the first maneuver, and was reduced or eliminated with the second. Pain localized to the acromioclavicular joint or "on top" was diagnostic of acromioclavicular joint abnormality, whereas pain or painful clicking described as "inside" the shoulder was considered indicative of labral abnormality. A prospective study was performed on 318 patients to determine the sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of the test. Fifty-three of 56 patients whose preoperative examinations indicated a labral tear had confirmed labral tears that were repaired at surgery. Fifty-five of 62 patients who had pain in the acromioclavicular joint and whose preoperative examinations indicated abnormalities in the joint had positive clinical, operative, or radiographic evidence of acromioclavicular injury. There were no false-negative results in either group.

Anterior cruciate ligament injury and patella dislocation: a report of nine cases.

Nine patients had combined anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) disruption and patella dislocation and underwent surgical reconstruction of one or both of these injuries. Six patients had both the ACL reconstructed and the patella realigned, and three had only the ACL reconstructed. Associated injuries were present in eight cases; these included meniscal tears in eight patients and medial collateral ligament injuries in two of these same patients. At final follow-up, at an average 19.7 months, examination revealed an average grade 1A Lachman and no pivot on all patients who underwent ACL reconstruction. No patients had hypermobile patellae or apprehension. One patient had a 4 degrees loss of extension and none had a loss of flexion. Two patients had continued anterior knee pain at final follow-up; one of these patients was the same person who had a loss of extension. None had recurrent instability of the ACL and none had recurrent instability of the patella.

The adduction distraction maneuver.

The adduction distraction maneuver is presented as an adjunct to the surgeon's technical skills to assist with the initial introduction of the shoulder arthroscope. Both novice and experienced arthroscopists can experience difficulty establishing access to the glenohumeral joint. Often this results in articular cartilage or soft tissue damage. The adduction distraction maneuver when used in the "beach chair" seated position for shoulder arthroscopy can facilitate posterior portal placement and minimize iatrogenic trauma.

Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the knee. Causes, diagnosis, and treatment.

Sixty patients with the diagnosis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the knee were evaluated retrospectively at our institution. The average followup was 2 years. Fifty-five (92%) patients treated with outpatient sympathetic blockade had resolution of the symptoms attributed to reflex sympathetic dystrophy. The time from onset of symptoms to initiation of treatment did not affect the ultimate outcome. The prognosis was most closely related to the presence or absence of an anatomic lesion that would continue to act as a painful stimulus. Eighty-one percent (29 of 36) of patients who had a significant anatomic lesion or surgical correction of a lesion had a complete resolution of their knee symptoms. However, only 21% (5 of 24) of patients with a persistent anatomic lesion in the knee had complete resolution. Fourteen patients required preliminary sympathetic blockade therapy before the underlying cause could be identified. This study emphasizes the need for establishing a precise diagnosis before contemplating any surgery of the knee, including arthroscopy. Arthroscopic procedures were the most common event precipitating reflex sympathetic dystrophy in this study.

Instability and impingement in the athlete's shoulder.

The competitive athlete who participates in a sport requiring overhead motion depends on a shoulder with optimal function. An acute episode of injury or a gradual onset of symptoms in the shoulder can affect the athlete's ability to perform. An understanding of shoulder anatomy and function is essential, and an accurate diagnosis of the underlying pathology is critical for planning treatment options. The correct diagnosis may be less clear when the athlete presents with an insidious onset of shoulder pain. A detailed history and physical examination, as well as an evaluation of the overhead motion and onset of pain, is important when the diagnosis of instability or impingement is considered. Rehabilitation of the rotator cuff often succeeds in alleviating symptoms and restoring function. Surgery is considered when symptoms and diminished function persist despite appropriate nonoperative treatment. Operative repair or reconstruction must be anatomical in nature. Postoperative rehabilitation is equally important in this setting, and a motivated athlete helps to ensure success.

The use of the contact Nd:YAG laser in arthroscopic surgery: effects on articular cartilage and meniscal tissue.

The contact Nd:YAG laser's small size, tip variety, fiberoptic application, and suitability for use in a saline medium make it a particularly appealing tool for use in arthroscopic procedures. This study was performed to investigate the laser's effects on articular cartilage and meniscal tissue with respect to depth of damage (canine cadaver model) and healing response (rabbit model). Depth of damage in the canine cadaver model was greater in meniscal tissue than in articular cartilage at each wattage level. In the presence of a saline bath, depth damage in both tissues was diminished. Scalpel articular cartilage lesions showed no response over time. Electrocautery lesions uniformly showed significant wide margins of hyaline cartilage necrosis which increased over time. Laser articular cartilage lesions showed vigorous healing responses characterized by fibrocartilage healing by 6 weeks. Scalpel meniscectomies showed characteristic fibrocartilagenous remodeling by 6 weeks, while electrocautery meniscectomies showed wide margins of necrosis with no specimen showing remodeling capability. Laser meniscectomies showed an intermediate response with a small number of menisci remodeling in a normal fashion. This article represents the first comprehensive look at the effects of the Nd:YAG laser on articular cartilage and meniscal tissue in terms of depth of damage and healing response over time, and indicates this laser's biological advantage over scalpel and electrocautery in arthroscopic procedures.