Dose response and kinetics of foci disappearance following exposure to high- and low-LET ionizing radiation.

PURPOSE: The effect of different radiation qualities on (i) 53BP1 (p53 Binding Protein 1) and p-ATM (phosphorylated ataxia telangiectasia mutated) foci induction, and (ii) on the kinetics of foci disappearance was analysed. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Normal human skin fibroblasts were exposed to 240 kV broad-field X-rays or targeted with individually counted helium ((3)He) particles or protons ((1)H) from a Charged Particle Microbeam. Anti-p-ATM and anti-53BP1 antibodies were used for foci visualisation via immunocytochemistry. RESULTS: 1 Gy of X-rays yielded approximately 33 53BP1-positive foci/cell. The ratio between the number of delivered particles and yielded tracks was found to be 1:1 and 3:1 after targeted (3)He and (1)H irradiation, respectively. It was determined that approximately 50% of radiation-induced damage was repaired as measured by loss of foci during the first 2, 6, and 10 hours following X-ray, protons, and (3)He irradiation, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: There was significant radiation quality dependence for 53BP1- and p-ATM-positive foci induction observed. Foci disappearance was radiation dose-independent in the samples irradiated with X-rays. Our results confirm that kinetics of foci disappearance depends on radiation quality, even when individual ions are targeted to cells.

The use of microbeams to investigate radiation damage in living cells.

The micro-irradiation technique continues to be highly relevant to a number of radiobiological studies in vitro. In particular, studies of the bystander effect show that direct damage to cells is not the only trigger for radiation-induced effects, but that unirradiated cells can also respond to signals from irradiated neighbours. Furthermore, the bystander response can be initiated even when no energy is deposited in the genomic DNA of the irradiated cell (i.e. by targeting just the cytoplasm).

DNA and chromosomal damage in response to intermittent extremely low-frequency magnetic fields.

Considerable controversy still exists as to whether electric and magnetic fields (MF) at extremely low frequencies are genotoxic to humans. The aim of this study was to test the ability of alternating magnetic fields to induce DNA and chromosomal damage in primary human fibroblasts. Single- and double-strand breaks were quantified using the alkaline comet assay and the gammaH2AX-foci assay, respectively. Chromosomal damage was assayed for unstable aberrations, sister chromatid exchange and micronuclei. Cells were exposed to switching fields - 5min on, 10min off - for 15h over the range 50-1000microT. Exposure to ionizing radiation was used as a positive-effect calibration. In this study two separate MF exposure systems were used. One was based on a custom-built solenoid coil system and the other on a commercial system almost identical to that used in previous studies by the EU REFLEX programme. With neither system could DNA damage or chromosomal damage be detected as a result of exposure of fibroblasts to switching MF. The sensitive gammaH2AX assay could also not detect significant DNA damage in the MF-exposed fibroblasts, although the minimum threshold for this assay was equivalent to an X-ray dose of 0.025Gy. Therefore, with comparable MF parameters employed, this study could not confirm previous studies reporting significant effects for both the alkaline and neutral comet assays and chromosomal aberration induction.

Estrogen enhanced cell-cell signalling in breast cancer cells exposed to targeted irradiation.

BACKGROUND: Radiation-induced bystander responses, where cells respond to their neighbours being irradiated are being extensively studied. Although evidence shows that bystander responses can be induced in many types of cells, it is not known whether there is a radiation-induced bystander effect in breast cancer cells, where the radiosensitivity may be dependent on the role of the cellular estrogen receptor (ER). This study investigated radiation-induced bystander responses in estrogen receptor-positive MCF-7 and estrogen receptor-negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. METHODS: The influence of estrogen and anti-estrogen treatments on the bystander response was determined by individually irradiating a fraction of cells within the population with a precise number of helium-3 using a charged particle microbeam. Damage was scored as chromosomal damage measured as micronucleus formation. RESULTS: A bystander response measured as increased yield of micronucleated cells was triggered in both MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. The contribution of the bystander response to total cell damage in MCF-7 cells was higher than that in MDA-MB-231 cells although the radiosensitivity of MDA-MB-231 was higher than MCF-7. Treatment of cells with 17beta-estradiol (E2) increased the radiosensitivity and the bystander response in MCF-7 cells, and the effect was diminished by anti-estrogen tamoxifen (TAM). E2 also increased the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in MCF-7 cells in the absence of radiation. In contrast, E2 and TAM had no influence on the bystander response and ROS levels in MDA-MB-231 cells. Moreover, the treatment of MCF-7 cells with antioxidants eliminated both the E2-induced ROS increase and E2-enhanced bystander response triggered by the microbeam irradiation, which indicates that ROS are involved in the E2-enhanced bystander micronuclei formation after microbeam irradiation. CONCLUSION: The observation of bystander responses in breast tumour cells may offer new potential targets for radiation-based therapies in the treatment of breast cancer.

Signaling factors for irradiated glioma cells induced bystander responses in fibroblasts.

The aim of this study was to investigate the signaling factor and its pathway involved in the targeted irradiation-induced bystander response from glioblastoma cells to primary fibroblasts. After co-culturing with a glioblastoma T98G population where a fraction of cells had been individually irradiated with a precise number of helium particles, additional micronucleus (MN) were induced in the non-irradiated human fibroblasts AG01522 cells and its yield was independent of irradiation dose. This bystander MN induction was eliminated by treating the cells with either aminoguanidine (AG), an iNOS inhibitor, or anti-transforming growth factor-beta1 (anti-TGF-beta1). In addition, TGF-beta1 could be released from irradiated T98G cells but this release was inhibited by AG. In consistent, TGF-beta1 could also be induced from T98G cells treated with diethylamine nitric oxide (DEANO), a donor of nitric oxide (NO). Moreover, the effect of TGF-beta1 on bystander AG01522 cells was investigated. It was found that reactive oxygen species (ROS) and MN were induced in AG01522 cells after TGF-beta1 treatment. Our results indicate that, downstream of NO, TGF-beta1 plays an important role in the targeted T98G cells induced bystander response to AG0 cells by further causing DNA damage in vicinal fibroblasts through a ROS related pathway. This study may have implications for properly evaluating the secondary effects of radiotherapy.

Cytoplasmic irradiation induces mitochondrial-dependent 53BP1 protein relocalization in irradiated and bystander cells.

The accepted paradigm for radiation effects is that direct DNA damage via energy deposition is required to trigger the downstream biological consequences. The radiation-induced bystander effect is the ability of directly irradiated cells to interact with their nonirradiated neighbors, which can then show responses similar to those of the targeted cells. p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) forms foci at DNA double-strand break sites and is an important sensor of DNA damage. This study used an ionizing radiation microbeam approach that allowed us to irradiate specifically the nucleus or cytoplasm of a cell and quantify response in irradiated and bystander cells by studying ionizing radiation-induced foci (IRIF) formation of 53BP1 protein. Our results show that targeting only the cytoplasm of a cell is capable of eliciting 53BP1 foci in both hit and bystander cells, independently of the dose or the number of cells targeted. Therefore, direct DNA damage is not required to trigger 53BP1 IRIF. The use of common reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) inhibitors prevent the formation of 53BP1 foci in hit and bystander cells. Treatment with filipin to disrupt membrane-dependent signaling does not prevent the cytoplasmic irradiation-induced 53BP1 foci in the irradiated cells, but it does prevent signaling to bystander cells. Active mitochondrial function is required for these responses because pseudo-rho(0) cells, which lack mitochondrial DNA, could not produce a bystander signal, although they could respond to a signal from normal rho+ cells.

Calcium fluxes modulate the radiation-induced bystander responses in targeted glioma and fibroblast cells.

Bystander responses have been reported to be a major determinant of the response of cells to radiation exposure at low doses, including those of relevance to therapy. This study investigated the role of changes in calcium levels in bystander responses leading to chromosomal damage in nonirradiated T98G glioma cells and AG01522 fibroblasts that had been either exposed to conditioned medium from irradiated cells or co-cultured with a population where a fraction of cells were individually targeted through the nucleus or cytoplasm with a precise number of microbeam helium-3 particles. After the recipient cells were treated with conditioned medium from T98G or AG01522 cells that had been irradiated through either nucleus or cytoplasm, rapid calcium fluxes were monitored in the nonirradiated recipient cells. Their characteristics were dependent on the source of the conditioned medium but had no dependence on radiation dose. When recipient cells were co-cultured with an irradiated population of either T98G or AG01522 cells, micronuclei were induced in the nonirradiated cells, but this response was eliminated by treating the cells with calcicludine (CaC), a potent blocker of Ca(2+) channels. Moreover, both the calcium fluxes and the bystander effect were inhibited when the irradiated T98G cells were treated with aminoguanidine, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), and when the irradiated AG01522 cells were treated with DMSO, a scavenger of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which indicates that NO and ROS were involved in the bystander responses generated from irradiated T98G and AG01522 cells, respectively. Our findings indicate that calcium signaling may be an early response in radiation-induced bystander effects leading to chromosome damage.

Histone H2AX phosphorylation in normal human cells irradiated with focused ultrasoft X rays: evidence for chromatin movement during repair.

DNA repair within the cell nucleus is a dynamic process involving a close interaction between repair proteins and chromatin structure. Recent studies have indicated a quantitative relationship between DNA double-strand break induction and histone H2AX phosphorylation. The dynamics of this process within individual cell nuclei is unknown. To address this, we have used a novel focused ultrasoft X-ray microprobe that is capable of inducing localized DNA damage within a subnuclear area of intact cells with a 2.5-microm-diameter beam spot. The present investigation was undertaken to explore the influence of focused irradiation of individual nuclei with 1.49 keV characteristic aluminum K-shell (AlK) X rays on H2AX phosphorylation in normal human cells. Immunofluorescence analyses revealed that significant diffusion of the initial spots of clustered foci of phosphorylated H2AX occurred in a time-dependent fashion after exposure to AlK X rays. Irradiation under cooled conditions resulted in a reduction in the size of spots of clustered foci of phosphorylated H2AX as well as of individual phosphorylated H2AX foci. These findings strongly suggest that diffusion of the chromatin microenvironment occurs during the repair of DNA damage. We also found that AlK ultrasoft X rays (71 foci per gray) were 2.2-fold more effective at the initial formation of phosphorylated H2AX foci than with conventional X rays (32 foci per gray), and that the time required to eliminate 50% of the initial number of foci was 3.4-fold longer in AlK-irradiated cells than that in cells exposed to conventional X rays. For conventional X rays, we also report significant accumulation of larger-sized foci at longer times after irradiation.

Apoptosis is initiated in human keratinocytes exposed to signalling factors from microbeam irradiated cells.

PURPOSE: There is now no doubt that bystander signalling from irradiated cells occurs and causes a variety of responses in cells not targeted by the ionizing track. However, the mechanisms underlying these processes are unknown and the relevance to radiotherapy and risk assessment remains controversial. Previous research by our laboratory has shown bystander effects in a human keratinocyte cell line, HPV-G cells, exposed to medium from gamma irradiated HPV-G cells. The aim of this work was to investigate if similar mechanisms to those identified in medium transfer experiments occurred in these HPV-G cells when they are in the vicinity of microbeam irradiated cells. Demonstration of a commonality of mechanisms would support the idea that the process is not artifactual. MATERIALS AND METHODS: HPV-G cells were plated as two separate populations on mylar dishes. One population was directly irradiated using a charged particle microbeam (1 - 10 protons). The other population was not irradiated. Bystander factor-induced apoptosis was investigated in both populations following treatment by monitoring the levels of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial membrane potential using fluorescent probes. Expression of the anti-apoptotic protein, bcl-2, and cytochrome c were determined, as well as apoptosis levels. RESULTS: Microbeam irradiation induced increases in reactive oxygen species and decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential at 6 h post-exposure, increased expression of bcl-2 and cytochrome c release at 6.5 h and increased apoptosis at 24 h. CONCLUSION: This study shows that similar bystander signalling pathways leading to apoptosis are induced following microbeam irradiation and following medium transfer. This demonstrates that the mechanisms involved are common across different radiation qualities and conditions and indicates that they may be relevant in vivo.

Bystander-induced differentiation: a major response to targeted irradiation of a urothelial explant model.

A ureter primary explant technique, using porcine tissue sections was developed to study bystander effects under in vivo like conditions where dividing and differentiated cells are present. Targeted irradiations of ureter tissue fragments were performed with the Gray Cancer Institute charged particle microbeam at a single location (2 microm precision) with 10 3He2+ particles (5 MeV; LET 70 keV/microm). After irradiation the ureter tissue section was incubated for 7 days allowing explant outgrowth to be formed. Differentiation was estimated using antibodies to Uroplakin III, a specific marker of terminal urothelial differentiation. Even although only a single region of the tissue section was targeted, thousands of additional cells were found to undergo bystander-induced differentiation in the explant outgrowth. This resulted in an overall increase in the fraction of differentiated cells from 63.5+/-5.4% to 76.6+/-5.6%. These changes are much greater than that observed for the induction of damage in this model. One interpretation of these results is that in the tissue environment, differentiation is a much more significant response to targeted irradiation and potentially a protective mechanism.

What role for DNA damage and repair in the bystander response?

The radiation-induced bystander effect challenges the accepted paradigm of direct DNA damage in response to energy deposition driving the biological consequences of radiation exposure. With the bystander response, cells which have not been directly exposed to radiation respond to their neighbours being targeted. In our own studies we have used novel targeted microbeam approaches to specifically irradiate parts of individual cells within a population to quantify the bystander response and obtain mechanistic information. Using this approach it has become clear that energy deposited by radiation in nuclear DNA is not required to trigger the effect, with cytoplasmic irradiation required. Irradiated cells also trigger a bystander response regardless of whether they themselves live or die, suggesting that the phenotype of the targeted cell is not a determining factor. Despite this however, a range of evidence has shown that repair status is important for dealing with the consequences of a bystander signal. Importantly, repair processes involved in the processing of dsb appear to be involved suggesting that the bystander response involves the delayed or indirect production of dsb-type lesions in bystander cells. Whether these are infact true dsb or complexes of oxidised bases in combination with strand breaks and the mechanisms for their formation, remains to be elucidated.

Radiation-induced bystander and adaptive responses in cell and tissue models.

The use of microbeam approaches has been a major advance in probing the relevance of bystander and adaptive responses in cell and tissue models. Our own studies at the Gray Cancer Institute have used both a charged particle microbeam, producing protons and helium ions and a soft X-ray microprobe, delivering focused carbon-K, aluminium-K and titanium-K soft X-rays. Using these techniques we have been able to build up a comprehensive picture of the underlying differences between bystander responses and direct effects in cell and tissue-like models. What is now clear is that bystander dose-response relationships, the underlying mechanisms of action and the targets involved are not the same as those observed for direct irradiation of DNA in the nucleus. Our recent studies have shown bystander responses even when radiation is deposited away from the nucleus in cytoplasmic targets. Also the interaction between bystander and adaptive responses may be a complex one related to dose, number of cells targeted and time interval.

Evidence for the direct binding of phosphorylated p53 to sites of DNA breaks in vivo.

Despite a clear link between ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM)-dependent phosphorylation of p53 and cell cycle checkpoint control, the intracellular biology and subcellular localization of p53 phosphoforms during the initial sensing of DNA damage is poorly understood. Using G0-G1 confluent primary human diploid fibroblast cultures, we show that endogenous p53, phosphorylated at Ser15 (p53Ser15), accumulates as discrete, dose-dependent and chromatin-bound foci within 30 minutes following induction of DNA breaks or DNA base damage. This biologically distinct subpool of p53Ser15 is ATM dependent and resistant to 26S-proteasomal degradation. p53Ser15 colocalizes and coimmunoprecipitates with gamma-H2AX with kinetics similar to that of biochemical DNA double-strand break (DNA-dsb) rejoining. Subnuclear microbeam irradiation studies confirm p53Ser15 is recruited to sites of DNA damage containing gamma-H2AX, ATM(Ser1981), and DNA-PKcs(Thr2609) in vivo. Furthermore, studies using isogenic human and murine cells, which express Ser15 or Ser18 phosphomutant proteins, respectively, show defective nuclear foci formation, decreased induction of p21WAF, decreased gamma-H2AX association, and altered DNA-dsb kinetics following DNA damage. Our results suggest a unique biology for this p53 phosphoform in the initial steps of DNA damage signaling and implicates ATM-p53 chromatin-based interactions as mediators of cell cycle checkpoint control and DNA repair to prevent carcinogenesis.

New insights on cell death from radiation exposure.

Ionising radiation has been an important part of cancer treatment for almost a century, being used in external-beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy, and targeted radionuclide therapy. At the molecular and cellular level, cell killing has been attributed to deposition of energy from the radiation in the DNA within the nucleus, with production of DNA double-strand breaks playing a central part. However, this DNA-centric model has been questioned because cell-death pathways, in which direct relations between cell killing and DNA damage diverge, have been reported. These pathways include membrane-dependent signalling pathways and bystander responses (when cells respond not to direct radiation exposure but to the irradiation of their neighbouring cells). New insights into mechanisms of these responses coupled with technological advances in targeting of cells in experimental systems with microbeams have led to a reassessment of the model of how cells are killed by ionising radiation. This review provides an update on these mechanisms.

Low-dose binary behavior of bystander cell killing after microbeam irradiation of a single cell with focused c(k) x rays.

Although conclusive evidence has been obtained for the presence of radiation-induced bystander effects, the mechanisms that trigger and regulate these processes are still largely unknown. The bystander effect may play a critical role in determining the biological effectiveness of low-dose exposures, but questions on how to incorporate it into current models and extrapolate the risks of radiation-induced carcinogenesis are still open. The Gray Cancer Institute soft X-ray microbeam has been used to investigate the dose-response relationship of the bystander effect below 0.5 Gy. The survival response of V79 cells was assessed after the irradiation of a single cell within a population with a submicrometer-size beam of carbon K X rays (278 eV). Above 0.3 Gy, the measured bystander cell killing was in agreement with previously published data; however, a significant increase in the scatter of the data was observed in the low-dose region (<0.3 Gy). The data distribution observed indicates a binary behavior for triggering of the bystander response. According to our hypothesis, the probability of triggering a bystander response increases approximately linearly with the dose delivered to the single selected cell, reaching 100% above about 0.3 Gy. The magnitude of the bystander effect, when triggered, is approximately constant with the dose and results in an overall approximately 10% reduction in survival in our system. This suggests that the event that triggers the emission of the bystander signal by the hit cell is an all-or-nothing process. Extrapolation of the data indicates that when a single fast electron traverses a V79 cell, there is a probability of approximately 0.3% that the cell will emit the bystander signal. The data presented in this paper have also been analyzed statistically to test the possibility that complex DNA double-strand breaks may be the initial critical event.

Bystander signaling between glioma cells and fibroblasts targeted with counted particles.

Radiation-induced bystander effects may play an important role in cancer risks associated with environmental, occupational and medical exposures and they may also present a therapeutic opportunity to modulate the efficacy of radiotherapy. However, the mechanisms underpinning these responses between tumor and normal cells are poorly understood. Using a microbeam, we investigated interactions between T98G malignant glioma cells and AG01522 normal fibroblasts by targeting cells through their nuclei in one population, then detecting cellular responses in the other co-cultured non-irradiated population. It was found that when a fraction of cells was individually irradiated with exactly 1 or 5 helium particles ((3)He(2+)), the yield of micronuclei (MN) in the non-irradiated population was significantly increased. This increase was not related to the fraction of cells targeted or the number of particles delivered to those cells. Even when one cell was targeted with a single (3)He(2+), the induction of MN in the bystander non-irradiated population could be increased by 79% for AG01522 and 28% for T98G. Furthermore, studies showed that nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were involved in these bystander responses. Following nuclear irradiation in only 1% of cells, the NO level in the T98G population was increased by 31% and the ROS level in the AG0 population was increased by 18%. Treatment of cultures with 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-imidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (c-PTIO), an NO scavenger, abolished the bystander MN induction in non-irradiated AG01522 cells but only partially in non-irradiated T98G cells, and this could be eliminated by treatment with either DMSO or antioxidants. Our findings indicate that differential mechanisms involving NO and ROS signaling factors play a role in bystander responses generated from targeted T98G glioma and AG0 fibroblasts, respectively. These bystander interactions suggest that a mechanistic control of the bystander effect could be of benefit to radiotherapy.

Genomic instability in human lymphocytes irradiated with individual charged particles: involvement of tumor necrosis factor alpha in irradiated cells but not bystander cells.

Exposure to ionizing radiation can increase the risk of cancer, which is often characterized by genomic instability. In environmental exposures to high-LET radiation (e.g. 222Ra), it is unlikely that many cells will be traversed or that any cell will be traversed by more than one alpha particle, resulting in an in vivo bystander situation, potentially involving inflammation. Here primary human lymphocytes were irradiated with precise numbers of 3He2+ ions delivered to defined cell population fractions, to as low as a single cell being traversed, resembling in vivo conditions. Also, we assessed the contribution to genomic instability of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFA). Genomic instability was significantly elevated in irradiated groups (> or = two-fold over controls) and was comparable whether cells were traversed by one or two 3He2+ ions. Interestingly, substantial heterogeneity in genomic instability between experiments was observed when only one cell was traversed. Genomic instability was significantly reduced (60%) in cultures in which all cells were irradiated in the presence of TNFA antibody, but not when fractions were irradiated under the same conditions, suggesting that TNFA may have a role in the initiation of genomic instability in irradiated cells but not bystander cells. These results have implications for low-dose exposure risks and cancer.

Evidence for induction of DNA double strand breaks in the bystander response to targeted soft X-rays in CHO cells.

This study investigated the role of DNA double strand breaks and DNA base damage in radiation-induced bystander responses in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines. Two CHO repair-deficient clones, xrs5 (DNA double strand break repair-deficient) and EM9 (DNA base excision repair-deficient) were used in addition to the wild type (CHO). The Gray Cancer Institute ultrasoft X-ray microprobe is a powerful tool for investigating the bystander response, because it permits the irradiation of only a single nucleus of a cell, as reported previously. In order to investigate the bystander effect in each repair-deficient cell line, we irradiated a single cell within a population and scored the formation of micronuclei. When a single nucleus in the population was targeted with 1 Gy, elevated numbers of micronuclei were induced in the neighbouring unirradiated cells in the EM9 and xrs5 cell lines, whereas induction was not observed in CHO. The induction of micronuclei in xrs5 was significantly higher than that in EM9. Under these conditions, the surviving fraction in the neighbouring cells was significantly lower in xrs5 than in the other cell lines, showing a higher cell killing effect in xrs5. To confirm that bystander factors secreted from irradiated cells caused these effects, we carried out medium transfer experiments using conventional X-irradiation. Medium conditioned for 24 h with irradiated cells was transferred to unirradiated cells and elevated induction of micronuclei was observed in xrs5. These results suggest that DNA double strand breaks rather than base damage are caused by factors secreted in the medium from irradiated cells.

Targeted cytoplasmic irradiation induces bystander responses.

The observation of radiation-induced bystander responses, in which cells respond to their neighbors being irradiated, has important implications for understanding mechanisms of radiation action particularly after low-dose exposure. Much of this questions the current dogma of direct DNA damage driving response in irradiated systems. In this study, we have used a charged-particle microbeam to target individual helium ions ((3)He(2+)) to individual cells within a population of radioresistant glioma cells cultured alone or in coculture with primary human fibroblasts. We found that even when a single cell within the glioma population was precisely traversed through its cytoplasm with one (3)He(2+) ion, bystander responses were induced in the neighboring nonirradiated glioma or fibroblasts so that the yield of micronuclei was increased by 36% for the glioma population and 78% for the bystander fibroblast population. Importantly, the yield of bystander-induced micronuclei was independent of whether the cytoplasm or nucleus of a cell was targeted. The bystander responses were fully eliminated when the populations were treated with 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-imidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide or filipin, which scavenge nitric oxide (NO) and disrupt membrane rafts, respectively. By using the probe 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein, it was found that the NO level in the glioma population was increased by 15% after 1 or 10 cytoplasmic traversals, and this NO production was inhibited by filipin. This finding shows that direct DNA damage is not required for switching on of important cell-signaling mechanisms after low-dose irradiation and that, under these conditions, the whole cell should be considered a sensor of radiation exposure.

Nitric oxide-mediated signaling in the bystander response of individually targeted glioma cells.

Bystander responses have been reported to be a major determinant of the response of cells to radiation exposure at low doses, including those of relevance to therapy. In this study, human glioblastoma T98G cell nuclei were individually irradiated with an exact number of helium ions using a single-cell microbeam. It was found that when only 1 cell in a population of approximately 1200 cells was targeted, with one or five ions, cellular damage measured as induced micronuclei was increased by 20%. When a fraction from 1% to 20% of cells were individually targeted, the micronuclei yield in the population greatly exceeded that predicted on the basis of the micronuclei yield when all of the cells were targeted assuming no bystander effect was occurring. However when 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4,4,5,5- tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (c-PTIO), a nitric oxide (NO)-specific scavenger was present in the culture medium, the micronuclei yields reduced to the predicted values, which indicates that NO contributes to the bystander effect. By using 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein (DAF-FM), NO was detected in situ, and it was found that NO-induced fluorescence intensity in the irradiated population where 1% of cell nuclei were individually targeted with a single helium ion was increased by 1.13 +/- 0.02-fold (P < 0.005) relative to control with approximately 40% of the cells showing increased NO levels. Moreover, the medium harvested from helium ion-targeted cells showed a cytotoxic effect by inducing micronuclei in unirradiated T98G cells, and this bystander response was also inhibited by c-PTIO treatment. The induction of micronuclei in the population could also be decreased by c-PTIO treatment when 100% of cells were individually targeted by one or two helium ions, indicating a complex interaction of direct irradiation and bystander signals.