Upper Respiratory Tract Disease in a Dog Infected by a Highly Pathogenic Avian A/H5N1 Virus.

In summer 2023, during an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in cats in Poland, a 16-year-old dog was presented to the veterinary clinic with persistent, debilitating, dry cough, submandibular lymphadenomegaly, mild serous nasal discharge, and left apical heart murmur. A preliminary diagnosis of kennel cough was made and the treatment with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and dexamethasone was initiated. Due to the lack of improvement within 2 days, a blood check-up, thoracic radiography and ultrasonography, and echocardiography were performed. Moreover, a rapid test for orthomyxovirus type A antigen in a throat swab was carried out and proved positive. The result was verified using RT-qPCR, which yielded a positive result for A/H5N1 influenza virus and negative results for A/H1N1, A/H3N2, type B influenza, and SARS-CoV-2. This case indicates that HPAI should be considered as a differential diagnosis not only in cats, but also in dogs with upper respiratory tract disease, particularly in regions experiencing A/H5N1 avian influenza outbreaks.

Feline Morbillivirus: Clinical Relevance of a Widespread Endemic Viral Infection of Cats.

Feline morbillivirus (FeMV) was first isolated in 2012 from stray cats in Hong Kong. It has been found in association with tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN), the most common cause of feline chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, viral host spectrum and virus tropism go beyond the domestic cat and kidney tissues. The viral genetic diversity of FeMV is extensive, but it is not known if this is clinically relevant. Urine and kidney tissues have been widely tested in attempts to confirm associations between FeMV infection and renal disease, but samples from both healthy and sick cats can test positive and some cross-sectional studies have not found associations between FeMV infection and CKD. There is also evidence for acute kidney injury following infection with FeMV. The results of prevalence studies differ greatly depending on the population tested and methodologies used for detection, but worldwide distribution of FeMV has been shown. Experimental studies have confirmed previous field observations that higher viral loads are present in the urine compared to other tissues, and renal TIN lesions associated with FeMV antigen have been demonstrated, alongside virus lymphotropism and viraemia-associated lymphopenia. Longitudinal field studies have revealed persistent viral shedding in urine, although infection can be cleared spontaneously.

A Fatal A/H5N1 Avian Influenza Virus Infection in a Cat in Poland.

A European Shorthair male cat, neutered, approximately 6 years of age, was presented to the veterinary clinic due to apathy and anorexia. The cat lived mostly outdoors and was fed raw chicken meat. After 3 days of diagnostic procedures and symptomatic treatment, respiratory distress and neurological signs developed and progressed into epileptic seizures, followed by respiratory and cardiac arrest within the next 3 days. Post-mortem examination revealed necrotic lesions in the liver, lungs, and intestines. Notably, the brain displayed perivascular infiltration of lymphocytes and histiocytes. Few foci of neuronal necrosis in the brain were also confirmed. Microscopic examination of the remaining internal organs was unremarkable. The A/H5N1 virus infection was confirmed using a one-step real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The disease caused severe neurological and respiratory signs, evidence of consolidations and the presence of numerous B lines, which were detected on lung ultrasound examination; the postmortem findings and detection of A/H5N1 viral RNA in multiple tissues indicated a generalized A/H5N1 virus infection. Moreover, a multidrug-resistant strain of Enterococcus faecium was isolated in pure culture from several internal organs. The source of infection could be exposure to infected birds or their excrements, as well as contaminated raw poultry meat but, in this case, the source of infection could not be identified.

Feline Infectious Peritonitis: European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases Guidelines.

Feline coronavirus (FCoV) is a ubiquitous RNA virus of cats, which is transmitted faeco-orally. In these guidelines, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD) presents a comprehensive review of feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). FCoV is primarily an enteric virus and most infections do not cause clinical signs, or result in only enteritis, but a small proportion of FCoV-infected cats develop FIP. The pathology in FIP comprises a perivascular phlebitis that can affect any organ. Cats under two years old are most frequently affected by FIP. Most cats present with fever, anorexia, and weight loss; many have effusions, and some have ocular and/or neurological signs. Making a diagnosis is complex and ABCD FIP Diagnostic Approach Tools are available to aid veterinarians. Sampling an effusion, when present, for cytology, biochemistry, and FCoV RNA or FCoV antigen detection is very useful diagnostically. In the absence of an effusion, fine-needle aspirates from affected organs for cytology and FCoV RNA or FCoV antigen detection are helpful. Definitive diagnosis usually requires histopathology with FCoV antigen detection. Antiviral treatments now enable recovery in many cases from this previously fatal disease; nucleoside analogues (e.g., oral GS-441524) are very effective, although they are not available in all countries.

Feline Injection-Site Sarcoma and Other Adverse Reactions to Vaccination in Cats.

Vaccine-associated adverse events (VAAEs), including feline injection-site sarcomas (FISSs), occur only rarely but can be severe. Understanding potential VAAEs is an important part of informed owner consent for vaccination. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of feline medicine experts, presents the current knowledge on VAAEs in cats, summarizing the literature and filling the gaps where scientific studies are missing with expert opinion to assist veterinarians in adopting the best vaccination practice. VAAEs are caused by an aberrant innate or adaptive immune reaction, excessive local reactions at the inoculation site, an error in administration, or failure in the manufacturing process. FISS, the most severe VAAE, can develop after vaccinations or injection of other substances. Although the most widely accepted hypothesis is that chronic inflammation triggers malignant transformation, the pathogenesis of FISS is not yet fully understood. No injectable vaccine is risk-free, and therefore, vaccination should be performed as often as necessary, but as infrequently as possible. Vaccines should be brought to room temperature prior to administration and injected at sites in which FISS surgery would likely be curative; the interscapular region should be avoided. Post-vaccinal monitoring is essential.

Vaccination and Antibody Testing in Cats.

Vaccines protect cats from serious diseases by inducing antibodies and cellular immune responses. Primary vaccinations and boosters are given according to vaccination guidelines provided by industry and veterinary organizations, based on minimal duration of immunity (DOI). For certain diseases, particularly feline panleukopenia, antibody titres correlate with protection. For feline calicivirus and feline herpesvirus, a similar correlation is absent, or less clear. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD) presents current knowledge and expert opinion on the use of antibody testing in different situations. Antibody testing can be performed either in diagnostic laboratories, or in veterinary practice using point of care (POC) tests, and can be applied for several purposes, such as to provide evidence that a successful immune response was induced following vaccination. In adult cats, antibody test results can inform the appropriate re-vaccination interval. In shelters, antibody testing can support the control of FPV outbreaks by identifying potentially unprotected cats. Antibody testing has also been proposed to support decisions on optimal vaccination schedules for the individual kitten. However, such testing is still expensive and it is considered impractical to monitor the decline of maternally derived antibodies.

Integrated Basic Heart and Lung Ultrasound Examination for the Differentiation between Bacterial Pneumonia and Lung Neoplasm in Dogs-A New Diagnostic Algorithm.

The diagnostics of two of the most prevalent lung diseases in dogs, bacterial pneumonia (BP) and lung neoplasm (LN), are challenging as their clinical signs are identical and may also occur in extrapulmonary diseases. This study aims to identify ultrasonographic criteria and develop a lung ultrasound (LUS)-based diagnostic algorithm which could help distinguish between these two conditions. The study is carried out in 66 dyspneic dogs in which a heart disease was excluded using echocardiography. Based on imaging and laboratory diagnostic tests, as well as follow-up, the dogs are classified into LN (35 dogs) and BP (31 dogs) groups. LUS is performed at admission and the presence of seven lung abnormalities (pleural thickening, B-lines, subpleural consolidations, hepatization with or without aeration, nodule sign and mass classified together as a tumor, and free pleural fluid) and classification and regression trees are used to develop an LUS-based diagnostic algorithm. Distribution of all LUS abnormalities except for aerations differs significantly between groups; however, their individual differentiating potential is rather low. Therefore, we combine them in an algorithm which allows for definitive classification of 60 dogs (91%) (32 with LN and 28 with BP) with correct diagnosis of LN and BP in 31 dogs and 27 dogs, respectively.

Vaccination of Immunocompromised Cats.

Immunocompromise is a common condition in cats, especially due to widespread infections with immunosuppressive viruses, such as feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukaemia virus (FeLV), but also due to chronic non-infectious diseases, such as tumours, diabetes mellitus, and chronic kidney disease, as well as treatment with immunosuppressive drugs, such as glucocorticoids, cyclosporins, or tumour chemotherapy. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from eleven European countries, discusses the current knowledge and rationale for vaccination of immunocompromised cats. So far, there are few data available on vaccination of immunocompromised cats, and sometimes studies produce controversial results. Thus, this guideline summarizes the available scientific studies and fills in the gaps with expert opinion, where scientific studies are missing. Ultimately, this review aims to help veterinarians with their decision-making in how best to vaccinate immunocompromised cats.

Calicivirus Infection in Cats.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common pathogen in domestic cats that is highly contagious, resistant to many disinfectants and demonstrates a high genetic variability. FCV infection can lead to serious or even fatal diseases. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, presents the current knowledge of FCV infection and fills gaps with expert opinions. FCV infections are particularly problematic in multicat environments. FCV-infected cats often show painful erosions in the mouth and mild upper respiratory disease and, particularly in kittens, even fatal pneumonia. However, infection can be associated with chronic gingivostomatitis. Rarely, highly virulent FCV variants can induce severe systemic disease with epizootic spread and high mortality. FCV can best be detected by reverse-transcriptase PCR. However, a negative result does not rule out FCV infection and healthy cats can test positive. All cats should be vaccinated against FCV (core vaccine); however, vaccination protects cats from disease but not from infection. Considering the high variability of FCV, changing to different vaccine strain(s) may be of benefit if disease occurs in fully vaccinated cats. Infection-induced immunity is not life-long and does not protect against all strains; therefore, vaccination of cats that have recovered from caliciviral disease is recommended.

Focused Cardiac Ultrasound Examination as a Tool for Diagnosis of Infective Endocarditis and Myocarditis in Dogs and Cats.

Symptoms of infective endocarditis (IE) and myocarditis are usually nonspecific and include fever, apathy, and loss of appetite. This condition can lead to severe heart failure with ascites or/and fluid in the thoracic cavity or/and in the pericardial sac. We describe infective endocarditis and myocarditis in 3 dogs and 4 cats. In all animals, the initial diagnosis was performed on the basis of a focused cardiac ultrasound examination performed by a general practitioner after a training in this technique. The initial findings were confirmed by a board-certified specialist in veterinary cardiology. Post mortem positive microbiological results from valves were obtained in 4 of 7 patients. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was confirmed in 2 cases and Staphylococcus epidermidis was confirmed in 2 cases, one of which included Enterococcus sp. coinfection. Histopathological examination confirmed initial diagnosis in 5 of 7 animals. In the remaining 2 patients, the time elapsed from the onset of clinical symptoms to death was about 1 month and no active inflammation but massive fibrosis was found microscopically. This is, to our best knowledge, the first report of IE and myocarditis diagnosed in small animals using focused cardiac ultrasound examination. Therefore, we conclude that common usage of this technique by trained general veterinarians may increase the rate of diagnosed patients with these conditions.

Lung Ultrasound for Imaging of B-Lines in Dogs and Cats-A Prospective Study Investigating Agreement between Three Types of Transducers and the Accuracy in Diagnosing Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema, Pneumonia and Lung Neoplasia.

Transthoracic heart and lung ultrasound (LUS) was performed in 200 dogs and cats with dyspnea to evaluate the agreement between the results obtained using three types of transducers (microconvex, linear, and phased array) and to determine the accuracy of LUS in discriminating between three conditions commonly causing dyspnea in companion animals: cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE), pneumonia, and lung neoplasm. The agreement beyond chance was assessed using the weighted Cohen's kappa coefficient (κw). The highest values of κw (>0.9) were observed for the pair of microconvex and linear transducers. To quantify B-lines the lung ultrasound score (LUSscore) was developed as a sum of points describing the occurrence of B-lines for each of 8 standardized thoracic locations. The accuracy of LUSscore was determined using the area under ROC curve (AUROC). In dogs AUROC of LUSscore was 75.9% (CI 95%: 65.0% to 86.8%) for distinguishing between lung neoplasms and the two other causes of dyspnea. In cats AUROC of LUSscore was 83.6% (CI 95%: 75.2% to 92.0%) for distinguishing between CPE and the two other causes of dyspnea. The study shows that results obtained with microconvex and linear transducers are highly consistent and these two transducers can be used interchangeably. Moreover, the LUSscore may help identify dogs with lung neoplasms and cats with CPE, however its diagnostic accuracy is only fair to moderate.

Influenza Virus Infections in Cats.

In the past, cats were considered resistant to influenza. Today, we know that they are susceptible to some influenza A viruses (IAVs) originating in other species. Usually, the outcome is only subclinical infection or a mild fever. However, outbreaks of feline disease caused by canine H3N2 IAV with fever, tachypnoea, sneezing, coughing, dyspnoea and lethargy are occasionally noted in shelters. In one such outbreak, the morbidity rate was 100% and the mortality rate was 40%. Recently, avian H7N2 IAV infection occurred in cats in some shelters in the USA, inducing mostly mild respiratory disease. Furthermore, cats are susceptible to experimental infection with the human H3N2 IAV that caused the pandemic in 1968. Several studies indicated that cats worldwide could be infected by H1N1 IAV during the subsequent human pandemic in 2009. In one shelter, severe cases with fatalities were noted. Finally, the highly pathogenic avian H5N1 IAV can induce a severe, fatal disease in cats, and can spread via cat-to-cat contact. In this review, the Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, summarises current data regarding the aetiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical picture, diagnostics, and control of feline IAV infections, as well as the zoonotic risks.

Anthropogenic Infection of Cats during the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic.

COVID-19 is a severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) caused by a new coronavirus (CoV), SARS-CoV-2, which is closely related to SARS-CoV that jumped the animal-human species barrier and caused a disease outbreak in 2003. SARS-CoV-2 is a betacoronavirus that was first described in 2019, unrelated to the commonly occurring feline coronavirus (FCoV) that is an alphacoronavirus associated with feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). SARS-CoV-2 is highly contagious and has spread globally within a few months, resulting in the current pandemic. Felids have been shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Particularly in the Western world, many people live in very close contact with their pet cats, and natural infections of cats in COVID-19-positive households have been described in several countries. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European Countries, discusses the current status of SARS-CoV infections in cats. The review examines the host range of SARS-CoV-2 and human-to-animal transmissions, including infections in domestic and non-domestic felids, as well as mink-to-human/-cat transmission. It summarises current data on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in domestic cats and the results of experimental infections of cats and provides expert opinions on the clinical relevance and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection in cats.

Seroprevalence of Feline Foamy Virus in Domestic Cats in Poland.

INTRODUCTION: Feline foamy virus (FFVfca) is widespread and its prevalence in naturally infected domestic cats ranges between 30% and 80% worldwide. The infection is persistent, with a sustained antibody response in FFVfca-positive cats; however to date, no defined disease or clinical symptoms have been proved to be associated with it. The goal of the presented study was to determine the prevalence of FFVfca infection in domestic cats in Poland. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 223 serum samples collected from domestic cats were tested with a glutathione S-transferase capture ELISA test to detect antibodies specific to capsid (Gag), accessory (Bet) and envelope (Env) FFVfca antigens. A Western blot test was used to confirm the ELISA results. RESULTS: The cut-off value for the Gag antigen was established by calculation and evaluation with the immunoblotting assay. The cut-off values for Bet and Env were calculated from the reactivity of Gag-negative samples. The sera of 99 cats (44%) showed reactivity to Gag, those of 80 did so (35.9 %) to Bet, while only 56 samples (25%) were reactive to Env. Only 51 (22.9%) sera were positive for all antigens. The main diagnostic antigen was selected to be Gag. A statistically significant association was found between FFVfca status and the age of the cat. CONCLUSIONS: This study proved the high seroprevalence of FFVfca in domestic cats in Poland for the first time and confirmed that adult cats are at higher FFVfca infection risk than preadult cats. Its results correspond to those reported from other countries.

Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management.

OVERVIEW: Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a common obligate intracellular microsporidian parasite of rabbits that is increasingly recognised as a pathogen of cats and other mammalian species. These guidelines aim to review the literature on feline E cuniculi infection and provide recommendations on prevention and management. INFECTION IN CATS: E cuniculi infection should be considered as a differential diagnosis in cases of feline uveitis and cataract formation. It is not significantly associated with either chronic kidney disease or meningoencephalitis. E cuniculi infection is more common in stray or feral cats than in pet cats. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT: Serological tests for antibody detection in the blood are easy to perform and can be useful for diagnosis, but their specificity is low as antibodies have been found in apparently healthy cats. PCR appears to be more sensitive than histopathology for diagnosis, and is more sensitive when performed on cataractous lenses compared with aqueous humour, although ease of sampling is an obvious limitation. Treatment is with fenbendazole for 3 weeks and phacoemulsification to remove microsporidia from cataractous lenses. ZOONOTIC RISK: E cuniculi is a potential zoonotic agent, and there is a particular risk to immunocompromised humans posed by infected rabbits. Albeit infrequent, spore shedding has been identified in cats, so care should be taken around infected cats.

Dirofilarioses in cats: European guidelines from the ABCD on prevention and management.

OVERVIEW: Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens are the most important filarial worms, causing heartworm disease and subcutaneous dirofilariosis, respectively. D repens is currently considered an emerging zoonotic agent in Europe. LIFE CYCLE AND INFECTION: Filarial worms infect mainly dogs, but also cats, ferrets, wild carnivores and humans. The life cycle involves an intermediate mosquito host. Compared with dogs, cats are imperfect hosts for dirofilarial worms. After inoculation, only a low number of L3 larvae develop to the adult stage in a small percentage of cats. Heartworm disease in cats may be associated with severe pulmonary thromboembolism and an eosinophilic inflammatory response in the lungs, potentially leading to sudden death. Otherwise self-cure occurs in most cases after 18-48 months. Subcutaneous dirofilariosis may present as subcutaneous nodules or dermatitis. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT: Diagnosis in cats is more difficult compared with dogs and needs a multistep approach (antigen and antibody tests, as well as diagnostic imaging). Cats with acute heartworm disease require stabilisation within an intensive care unit. Cats with respiratory signs or suggestive radiographic changes should receive prednisolone and follow-up with a similar multistep approach. Adulticidal therapy is not safe in cats. PREVENTION: In endemic areas cats should receive year-round chemoprophylaxis from 2 months of age.

Pan-European Study on the Prevalence of the Feline Leukaemia Virus Infection - Reported by the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD Europe).

Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus associated with fatal disease in progressively infected cats. While testing/removal and vaccination led to a decreased prevalence of FeLV, recently, this decrease has reportedly stagnated in some countries. This study aimed to prospectively determine the prevalence of FeLV viraemia in cats taken to veterinary facilities in 32 European countries. FeLV viral RNA was semiquantitatively detected in saliva, using RT-qPCR as a measure of viraemia. Risk and protective factors were assessed using an online questionnaire to report geographic, demographic, husbandry, FeLV vaccination, and clinical data. The overall prevalence of FeLV viraemia in cats visiting a veterinary facility, of which 10.4% were shelter and rescue cats, was 2.3% (141/6005; 95% CI: 2.0%-2.8%) with the highest prevalences in Portugal, Hungary, and Italy/Malta (5.7%-8.8%). Using multivariate analysis, seven risk factors (Southern Europe, male intact, 1-6 years of age, indoor and outdoor or outdoor-only living, living in a group of ≥5 cats, illness), and three protective factors (Northern Europe, Western Europe, pedigree cats) were identified. Using classification and regression tree (CART) analysis, the origin of cats in Europe, pedigree, and access to outdoors were important predictors of FeLV status. FeLV-infected sick cats shed more viral RNA than FeLV-infected healthy cats, and they suffered more frequently from anaemia, anorexia, and gingivitis/stomatitis than uninfected sick cats. Most cats had never been FeLV-vaccinated; vaccination rates were indirectly associated with the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. In conclusion, we identified countries where FeLV was undetectable, demonstrating that the infection can be eradicated and highlighting those regions where awareness and prevention should be increased.

Postmortem imaging in goats using computed tomography with air as a negative contrast agent.

PURPOSE: Evaluation of the usefulness of air as a negative contrast medium of blood vessels in goats in post mortem computed tomography (PMCT) and establishing the protocol with appropriate doses and timing of the contrast medium administration. METHODS: Thirty three goats were euthanized 10 to 300 min before the study. First, in 3 goats air was administered into the left or right common carotid artery at dose of 60, 100 and 120 ml/kg, and after each dose PMCT was performed in lateral recumbency. As the latter dose proved to visualize blood vessels best, following 30 goats were examined in the same manner but only with the use of air dose of 120 ml/kg. The quality of CT scans was evaluated independently by two board-certified radiologists. RESULTS: In all studied animals the vascular system filled with air was clearly visualized on CT scans. In most of goats this amount of air revealed vessels smaller than 4 mm in diameter. CONCLUSIONS: PMCT with air as a negative contrast agent may be an alternative technique used in post-mortem angiography.

MLST and RAPD molecular analysis of Staphylococcus aureus subsp. anaerobius isolated from goats in Poland.

Staphylococcus aureus subsp. anaerobius is an etiological agent of Morel's disease in small ruminants. The infection results in superficial abscesses located near lymph nodes. In the study, molecular analysis based on multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of seven housekeeping genes (arcC, aroE, glp, gmk, pta, tpi, yqiL) and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was carried out on 19 S. aureus subsp. anaerobius strains isolated from two different goat herds from Poland. All of the 19 S. aureus subsp. anaerobius strains were found to belong to single MLST and RAPD types which support the high clonality level of this agent. However, the results obtained show clearly that the S. aureus subsp. anaerobius clone found in goats in Poland is different from those previously described. However, it is identical to the ATCC 38844 strain isolated from sheep in Spain, which has not been so far genotyped using MLST.

Comparison of oscillometric, Doppler and invasive blood pressure measurement in anesthetized goats.

Arterial blood pressure (BP) can be measured directly using an invasive intra-arterial method. This method is considered a gold standard, however it is potentially hazardous and requires expensive equipment and professional skills. Therefore, two non-invasive methods-Doppler ultrasonic sphygmomanometry and oscillometry-have been introduced in veterinary medicine. Their accuracy has so far been reliably evaluated in various animal species, however only one study included a small group of goats. Therefore, we carried out a large-scale study which aimed to evaluate agreement between the two non-invasive methods and invasive intra-arterial BP measurement in anesthetized goats at various age. The study included 122 goats of two Polish local breeds (Polish White Improved and Polish Fawn Improved): 67 adult females, 35 adult males, and 20 two-month-old female kids. Goats were anesthetized with the intravenous mixture of xylazine and ketamine. BP was measured simultaneously with the three methods in each goat with 7 measurements on average taken. The study showed that according to the criteria of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) oscillometric method yielded BP measurements sufficiently consistent with invasive intra-arterial method in anesthetized adult goats- 95% of oscillometric BP measurements were expected to differ from invasive BP measurements by at most ±20-25 mmHg. The agreement was worse in goat kids-oscillometry significantly overestimated invasive BP measurements, which resulted in highly asymmetrical 95% limits of agreement. Doppler systolic BP very poorly conformed to invasive systolic BP both in adult goats and in kids and all the ACVIM criteria were violated. Concluding, oscillometry, but not Doppler ultrasonic sphygmomanometry, may be regarded as an alternative to invasive BP measurement in large-scale scientific studies involving adult goats, however, individual oscillometric BP measurements should be treated with caution as estimated 95% limits of agreement were wide.