Greater male variability in daily energy expenditure develops through puberty.

There is considerably greater variation in metabolic rates between men than between women, in terms of basal, activity and total (daily) energy expenditure (EE). One possible explanation is that EE is associated with male sexual characteristics (which are known to vary more than other traits) such as musculature and athletic capacity. Such traits might be predicted to be most prominent during periods of adolescence and young adulthood, when sexual behaviour develops and peaks. We tested this hypothesis on a large dataset by comparing the amount of male variation and female variation in total EE, activity EE and basal EE, at different life stages, along with several morphological traits: height, fat free mass and fat mass. Total EE, and to some degree also activity EE, exhibit considerable greater male variation (GMV) in young adults, and then a decreasing GMV in progressively older individuals. Arguably, basal EE, and also morphometrics, do not exhibit this pattern. These findings suggest that single male sexual characteristics may not exhibit peak GMV in young adulthood, however total and perhaps also activity EE, associated with many morphological and physiological traits combined, do exhibit GMV most prominently during the reproductive life stages.

Total daily energy expenditure has declined over the past three decades due to declining basal expenditure, not reduced activity expenditure.

Obesity is caused by a prolonged positive energy balance1,2. Whether reduced energy expenditure stemming from reduced activity levels contributes is debated3,4. Here we show that in both sexes, total energy expenditure (TEE) adjusted for body composition and age declined since the late 1980s, while adjusted activity energy expenditure increased over time. We use the International Atomic Energy Agency Doubly Labelled Water database on energy expenditure of adults in the United States and Europe (n = 4,799) to explore patterns in total (TEE: n = 4,799), basal (BEE: n = 1,432) and physical activity energy expenditure (n = 1,432) over time. In males, adjusted BEE decreased significantly, but in females this did not reach significance. A larger dataset of basal metabolic rate (equivalent to BEE) measurements of 9,912 adults across 163 studies spanning 100 years replicates the decline in BEE in both sexes. We conclude that increasing obesity in the United States/Europe has probably not been fuelled by reduced physical activity leading to lowered TEE. We identify here a decline in adjusted BEE as a previously unrecognized factor.

Variation in human water turnover associated with environmental and lifestyle factors.

Water is essential for survival, but one in three individuals worldwide (2.2 billion people) lacks access to safe drinking water. Water intake requirements largely reflect water turnover (WT), the water used by the body each day. We investigated the determinants of human WT in 5604 people from the ages of 8 days to 96 years from 23 countries using isotope-tracking (2H) methods. Age, body size, and composition were significantly associated with WT, as were physical activity, athletic status, pregnancy, socioeconomic status, and environmental characteristics (latitude, altitude, air temperature, and humidity). People who lived in countries with a low human development index (HDI) had higher WT than people in high-HDI countries. On the basis of this extensive dataset, we provide equations to predict human WT in relation to anthropometric, economic, and environmental factors.

Variability in energy expenditure is much greater in males than females.

In mammals, trait variation is often reported to be greater among males than females. However, to date, mainly only morphological traits have been studied. Energy expenditure represents the metabolic costs of multiple physical, physiological, and behavioral traits. Energy expenditure could exhibit particularly high greater male variation through a cumulative effect if those traits mostly exhibit greater male variation, or a lack of greater male variation if many of them do not. Sex differences in energy expenditure variation have been little explored. We analyzed a large database on energy expenditure in adult humans (1494 males and 3108 females) to investigate whether humans have evolved sex differences in the degree of interindividual variation in energy expenditure. We found that, even when statistically comparing males and females of the same age, height, and body composition, there is much more variation in total, activity, and basal energy expenditure among males. However, with aging, variation in total energy expenditure decreases, and because this happens more rapidly in males, the magnitude of greater male variation, though still large, is attenuated in older age groups. Considerably greater male variation in both total and activity energy expenditure could be explained by greater male variation in levels of daily activity. The considerably greater male variation in basal energy expenditure is remarkable and may be explained, at least in part, by greater male variation in the size of energy-demanding organs. If energy expenditure is a trait that is of indirect interest to females when choosing a sexual partner, this would suggest that energy expenditure is under sexual selection. However, we present a novel energetics model demonstrating that it is also possible that females have been under stabilizing selection pressure for an intermediate basal energy expenditure to maximize energy available for reproduction.

Total energy expenditure is repeatable in adults but not associated with short-term changes in body composition.

Low total energy expenditure (TEE, MJ/d) has been a hypothesized risk factor for weight gain, but repeatability of TEE, a critical variable in longitudinal studies of energy balance, is understudied. We examine repeated doubly labeled water (DLW) measurements of TEE in 348 adults and 47 children from the IAEA DLW Database (mean ± SD time interval: 1.9 ± 2.9 y) to assess repeatability of TEE, and to examine if TEE adjusted for age, sex, fat-free mass, and fat mass is associated with changes in weight or body composition. Here, we report that repeatability of TEE is high for adults, but not children. Bivariate Bayesian mixed models show no among or within-individual correlation between body composition (fat mass or percentage) and unadjusted TEE in adults. For adults aged 20-60 y (N = 267; time interval: 7.4 ± 12.2 weeks), increases in adjusted TEE are associated with weight gain but not with changes in body composition; results are similar for subjects with intervals >4 weeks (N = 53; 29.1 ± 12.8 weeks). This suggests low TEE is not a risk factor for, and high TEE is not protective against, weight or body fat gain over the time intervals tested.

Physical activity and fat-free mass during growth and in later life.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity may be a way to increase and maintain fat-free mass (FFM) in later life, similar to the prevention of fractures by increasing peak bone mass. OBJECTIVES: A study is presented of the association between FFM and physical activity in relation to age. METHODS: In a cross-sectional study, FFM was analyzed in relation to physical activity in a large participant group as compiled in the International Atomic Energy Agency Doubly Labeled Water database. The database included 2000 participants, age 3-96 y, with measurements of total energy expenditure (TEE) and resting energy expenditure (REE) to allow calculation of physical activity level (PAL = TEE/REE), and calculation of FFM from isotope dilution. RESULTS: PAL was a main determinant of body composition at all ages. Models with age, fat mass (FM), and PAL explained 76% and 85% of the variation in FFM in females and males < 18 y old, and 32% and 47% of the variation in FFM in females and males ≥ 18 y old, respectively. In participants < 18 y old, mean FM-adjusted FFM was 1.7 kg (95% CI: 0.1, 3.2 kg) and 3.4 kg (95% CI: 1.0, 5.6 kg) higher in a very active participant with PAL = 2.0 than in a sedentary participant with PAL = 1.5, for females and males, respectively. At age 18 y, height and FM-adjusted FFM was 3.6 kg (95% CI: 2.8, 4.4 kg) and 4.4 kg (95% CI: 3.2, 5.7 kg) higher, and at age 80 y 0.7 kg (95% CI: -0.2, 1.7 kg) and 1.0 kg (95% CI: -0.1, 2.1 kg) higher, in a participant with PAL = 2.0 than in a participant with PAL = 1.5, for females and males, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: If these associations are causal, they suggest physical activity is a major determinant of body composition as reflected in peak FFM, and that a physically active lifestyle can only partly protect against loss of FFM in aging adults.

Energy compensation and adiposity in humans.

Understanding the impacts of activity on energy balance is crucial. Increasing levels of activity may bring diminishing returns in energy expenditure because of compensatory responses in non-activity energy expenditures.1-3 This suggestion has profound implications for both the evolution of metabolism and human health. It implies that a long-term increase in activity does not directly translate into an increase in total energy expenditure (TEE) because other components of TEE may decrease in response-energy compensation. We used the largest dataset compiled on adult TEE and basal energy expenditure (BEE) (n = 1,754) of people living normal lives to find that energy compensation by a typical human averages 28% due to reduced BEE; this suggests that only 72% of the extra calories we burn from additional activity translates into extra calories burned that day. Moreover, the degree of energy compensation varied considerably between people of different body compositions. This association between compensation and adiposity could be due to among-individual differences in compensation: people who compensate more may be more likely to accumulate body fat. Alternatively, the process might occur within individuals: as we get fatter, our body might compensate more strongly for the calories burned during activity, making losing fat progressively more difficult. Determining the causality of the relationship between energy compensation and adiposity will be key to improving public health strategies regarding obesity.

Daily energy expenditure through the human life course.

Total daily energy expenditure ("total expenditure") reflects daily energy needs and is a critical variable in human health and physiology, but its trajectory over the life course is poorly studied. We analyzed a large, diverse database of total expenditure measured by the doubly labeled water method for males and females aged 8 days to 95 years. Total expenditure increased with fat-free mass in a power-law manner, with four distinct life stages. Fat-free mass-adjusted expenditure accelerates rapidly in neonates to ~50% above adult values at ~1 year; declines slowly to adult levels by ~20 years; remains stable in adulthood (20 to 60 years), even during pregnancy; then declines in older adults. These changes shed light on human development and aging and should help shape nutrition and health strategies across the life span.

Lower volume throughout the taper and higher intensity in the last interval session prior to a 1500 m time trial improves performance.

Eight highly trained middle-distance runners (1500 m personal best 4:01.4 ± 0:09.2 min) completed two 7-day tapers, separated by at least 3 weeks of regular training: (i) prescribed using prediction models from elite middle-distance runners, where continuous running volume was reduced by 30% and interval intensity was equal to 1500 m race pace (RP); and (ii) continuous running volume was reduced by 60% and intensity of the final interval session was completed at 110% of 1500 m race pace (HI). Performance was assessed using 1500 m time trials on an indoor 200 m track 1 day before, and 1 day after each taper. Performance time was improved after HI by 5.2 ± 3.7 s (mean ± 90% confidence limits, p = 0.03) and by 3.2 ± 3.8 s after RP (p = 0.15). The first and second 300 m segments of the 1500 m time trial were faster post-taper in RP (p = 0.012 and p = 0.017, respectively) and HI (both p = 0.012). Running faster than race pace late in a low-volume taper is recommended to improve 1500 m track performance. A positive pacing strategy is adopted after tapering, although care should be taken to avoid an over-fast start. Novelty: A large reduction in volume during tapering and an increase in final interval session intensity improves running performance. Athletes adopt a negative pacing strategy before tapering and a positive-pacing strategy after tapering.

A standard calculation methodology for human doubly labeled water studies.

The doubly labeled water (DLW) method measures total energy expenditure (TEE) in free-living subjects. Several equations are used to convert isotopic data into TEE. Using the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) DLW database (5,756 measurements of adults and children), we show considerable variability is introduced by different equations. The estimated rCO2 is sensitive to the dilution space ratio (DSR) of the two isotopes. Based on performance in validation studies, we propose a new equation based on a new estimate of the mean DSR. The DSR is lower at low body masses (<10 kg). Using data for 1,021 babies and infants, we show that the DSR varies non-linearly with body mass between 0 and 10 kg. Using this relationship to predict DSR from weight provides an equation for rCO2 over this size range that agrees well with indirect calorimetry (average difference 0.64%; SD = 12.2%). We propose adoption of these equations in future studies.

Effects of an increase in intensity during tapering on 1500-m running performance.

We examined the effect of completing the final interval training session during a taper at either (i) race pace (RP) or (ii) faster than RP on 1500-m running performance and neuromuscular performance. Ten trained runners (age, 21.7 ± 3.0 years; height, 182.9 ± 7.0 cm; body mass, 73.4 ± 6.8 kg; and personal best 1500-m time, 4:17.5 ± 0:26.9 min) completed 2 conditions consisting of 7 days of regular training and a 7-day taper, separated by 3 weeks of training. In 1 condition, the taper was prescribed using prediction models based on the practices of elite British middle-distance runners, with the intensity of the final interval session being equal to 1500-m RP. The taper was repeated in the high-intensity (HI) condition, with the exception that the final interval session was completed at 115% of 1500-m RP. A 1500-m treadmill time trial and measures of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and rate of force development (RFD) were completed before and after regular training and tapering. Performance was most likely improved after RP (mean ± 90% confidence limits, 10.1 ± 1.6 s), and possibly beneficial after HI (4.2 ± 12.0 s). Both MVC force (p = 0.002) and RFD (p = 0.02) were improved after tapering, without differences between conditions. An RP taper based on the practices of elite middle-distance runners is recommended to improve performance in young, subelite runners. The effect of this strategy with an increase in interval intensity is highly variable and should be implemented with caution.

Altitude training in endurance running: perceptions of elite athletes and support staff.

This study sought to establish perceptions of elite endurance athletes on the role and worth of altitude training. Elite British endurance runners were surveyed to identify the altitude and hypoxic training methods utilised, along with reasons for use, and any situational, cultural and behaviour factors influencing these. Prior to the 2012 Olympics Games, 39 athletes and 20 support staff (coaches/practitioners) completed an internet-based survey to establish differences between current practices and the accepted "best-practice". Almost all of the athletes (98%) and support staff (95%) surveyed had utilised altitude and hypoxic training, or had advised it to athletes. 75% of athletes believed altitude and hypoxia to be a "very important" factor in their training regime, with 50% of support staff believing the same. Athletes and support staff were in agreement of the methods of altitude training utilised (i.e. 'hypoxic dose' and strategy), with camps lasting 3-4 weeks at 1,500-2,500 m being the most popular. Athletes and support staff are utilising altitude and hypoxic training methods in a manner agreeing with research-based suggestions. The survey identified a number of specific challenges and priorities, which could provide scope to optimise future altitude training methods for endurance performance in these elite groups.

Tapering strategies in elite British endurance runners.

The aim of the study was to explore pre-competition training practices of elite endurance runners. Training details from elite British middle distance (MD; 800 m and 1500 m), long distance (LD; 3000 m steeplechase to 10,000 m) and marathon (MAR) runners were collected by survey for 7 days in a regular training (RT) phase and throughout a pre-competition taper. Taper duration was [median (interquartile range)] 6 (3) days in MD, 6 (1) days in LD and 14 (8) days in MAR runners. Continuous running volume was reduced to 70 (16)%, 71 (24)% and 53 (12)% of regular levels in MD, LD and MAR runners, respectively (P < 0.05). Interval running volume was reduced compared to regular training (MD; 53 (45)%, LD; 67 (23)%, MAR; 64 (34)%, P < 0.05). During tapering, the peak interval training intensity was above race speed in LD and MAR runners (112 (27)% and 114 (3)%, respectively, P < 0.05), but not different in MD (100 (2)%). Higher weekly continuous running volume and frequency in RT were associated with greater corresponding reductions during the taper (R = -0.70 and R = -0.63, respectively, both P < 0.05). Running intensity during RT was positively associated with taper running intensity (continuous intensity; R = 0.97 and interval intensity; R = 0.81, both P < 0.05). Algorithms were generated to predict and potentially prescribe taper content based on the RT of elite runners. In conclusion, training undertaken prior to the taper in elite endurance runners is predictive of the tapering strategy implemented before competition.

The reliability of running economy expressed as oxygen cost and energy cost in trained distance runners.

This study assessed the between-test reliability of oxygen cost (OC) and energy cost (EC) in distance runners, and contrasted it with the smallest worthwhile change (SWC) of these measures. OC and EC displayed similar levels of within-subject variation (typical error < 3.85%). However, the typical error (2.75% vs 2.74%) was greater than the SWC (1.38% vs 1.71%) for both OC and EC, respectively, indicating insufficient sensitivity to confidently detect small, but meaningful, changes in OC and EC.

Improvement of 800-m running performance with prior high-intensity exercise.

UNLABELLED: Prior high-intensity exercise increases the oxidative energy contribution to subsequent exercise and may enhance exercise tolerance. The potential impact of a high-intensity warm-up on competitive performance, however, has not been investigated. PURPOSE: To test the hypothesis that a high-intensity warm-up would speed VO2 kinetics and enhance 800-m running performance in well-trained athletes. METHODS: Eleven highly trained middle-distance runners completed two 800-m time trials on separate days on an indoor track, preceded by 2 different warm-up procedures. The 800-m time trials were preceded by a 10-min self-paced jog and standardized mobility drills, followed by either 6 × 50-m strides (control [CON]) or 2 × 50-m strides and a continuous high-intensity 200-m run (HWU) at race pace. Blood [La] was measured before the time trials, and VO2 was measured breath by breath throughout exercise. RESULTS: 800-m time-trial performance was significantly faster after HWU (124.5 ± 8.3 vs CON, 125.7 ± 8.7 s, P < .05). Blood [La] was greater after HWU (3.6 ± 1.9 vs CON, 1.7 ± 0.8 mM; P < .01). The mean response time for VO2 was not different between conditions (HWU, 27 ± 6 vs CON, 28 ± 7 s), but total O2 consumed (HWU, 119 ± 18 vs CON, 109 ± 28 ml/kg, P = .05) and peak VO2 attained (HWU, 4.21 ± 0.85 vs CON, 3.91 ± 0.63 L/min; P = .08) tended to be greater after HWU. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that a sustained high-intensity warm-up enhances 800-m time-trial performance in trained athletes.

Comparison of step-wise and ramp-wise incremental rowing exercise tests and 2000-m rowing ergometer performance.

PURPOSE: This study examined parameters derived from both an incremental step-wise and a ramp-wise graded rowing exercise test in relation to rowing performance. METHODS: Discontinuous step-wise incremental rowing to exhaustion established lactate threshold (LT), maximum oxygen consumption (VO(2maxSTEP)), and power associated with VO(2max) (W VO(2max)). A further continuous ramp-wise test was undertaken to derive ventilatory threshold (VT), maximum oxygen consumption (VO(2maxRAMP)), and maximum minute power (MMW). Results were compared with maximal 2000-m ergometer time-trial power. RESULTS: The strongest correlation with 2000-m power was observed for MMW (r = .98, P < .001), followed by W VO(2max) (r = .96; P < .001). The difference between MMW and W VO(2max) compared with the mean of MMW/W VO(2max) showed a widening bias with a greater difference coincident with greater power. However, this bias was reduced when expressed as a ratio term and when a baseline VO2 was accounted for. There were no differences (P = .85) between measures of VO(2maxSTEP) and VO(2maxRAMP); rather, the measures showed strong association (r = .97, P < .001, limits of agreement = -0.43 to 0.33 L/min). The power at LT and VT did not differ (P = .6), and a significant association was observed (r = .73, P = .001, limits of agreement = -54.3 to 20.2 W, SEE = 26.1). CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that MMW demonstrates a strong association with ergometer rowing performance and thus may have potential as an influential monitoring tool for rowing athletes.

Training distribution, physiological profile, and performance for a male international 1500-m runner.

This case study observed the training delivered by a 1500-m runner and the physiological and performance change during a 2-y period. A male international 1500-m runner (personal best 3:38.9 min:s, age 26 y, height 1.86 m, body mass 76 kg) completed 6 laboratory tests and 14 monitored training sessions, during 2 training years. Training distribution and volume was ascertained from training diary and spot-check monitoring of heart rate and accelerometry measurements. Testing and training information were discussed with coach and athlete from which training changes were made. In the first training year, low-intensity training was found to be performed above the prescribed level, which was adjusted with training and coach support in y 2 (training zone < 80% of vVO2max, y 1 = 20%; y 2 = 55%). "Tempo" training was also performed at an excessively high intensity (Δ [blood lactate] 5-25 min of tempo run, y 1 = Δ6.7 mM, y 2 = Δ2.5 mM). From y 1 to 2, there was a concomitant increase in the proportion of training in the high-intensity zone of 100 to 130% vVO2max from 7 to 10%. Values for VO2max increased from 72 to 79 mL · kg-1 · min, economy improved from 210 to 206 mL · kg-1 · min, and 1500-m performance time improved from 3:38.9 to 3:32.4 min:s from the beginning of y 1 to the end of y 2. This case shows a modification in training methodology that was coincident with a greater improvement in physiological capability and furtherance in performance improvement.

Altitude training for elite endurance performance: a 2012 update.

Altitude training is commonly used by endurance athletes and coaches in pursuit of enhancement of performance on return to sea level. The purpose of the current review article was to update and evaluate recent literature relevant to the practical application of altitude training for endurance athletes. Consequently, the literature can be considered in either of two categories: performance-led investigations or mechanistic advancements/insights. Each section discusses the relevant literature and proposes future directions where appropriate.

Elite Kenyan endurance runners are hydrated day-to-day with ad libitum fluid intake.

UNLABELLED: Previous studies of elite Kenyan endurance runners reported that athletes did not consume liquids before or during training and infrequently consumed modest amounts of liquids after training that contributed to low daily fluid intake. PURPOSE: To assess hydration status of elite Kenyan endurance runners during an important training period. METHODS: Hydration status was monitored in fourteen elite Kenyan endurance runners over a 5-d training period 1 wk prior to the Kenyan national trials for the 2005 IAAF Athletics World Championships by measuring body mass, urine osmolality, total body water, and daily fluid intake. Dietary sodium (Na) intake was estimated using a 5-d nutritional diary and biochemical analysis, whilst [Na] was determined in urine and sweat. Intestinal temperature was monitored continuously during training sessions. RESULTS: Daily fluid intake was consistent with previous observations. There was a significant body mass loss during the morning, interval, and afternoon training sessions (P < 0.05). Nevertheless, mean total body water and pretraining body mass were well maintained day-to-day throughout the 5-d recording period (P = 0.194 and P = 0.302, respectively). Furthermore, there was no significant difference between the osmolality of the morning urine sample and the evening sample (P = 0.685). Mean Na intake was not significantly different to Na loss in sweat and urine (P = 0.975). No athlete showed signs or symptoms of heat strain at any time. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that elite Kenyan endurance runners remain well hydrated day-to-day with an ad libitum fluid intake; a pattern and volume of fluid intake that is consistent with previous observations of elite Kenyan endurance runners.

Estimation of oxygen uptake during fast running using accelerometry and heart rate.

UNLABELLED: Previous investigations have reported that accelerometer counts plateau during running at increasingly faster speeds. PURPOSE: To assess whether biomechanical and/or device limitations cause this phenomenon and the feasibility of generating oxygen uptake (.VO2) prediction equations from the combined use of accelerometry and heart rate during walking and running. METHODS: : Sixteen endurance-trained subjects completed two exercise tests on a treadmill. The first was a continuous incremental test to volitional exhaustion to determine ventilatory threshold and peak .VO2. The second was a discontinuous incremental exercise test while walking (3, 5, and 7 km.h(-1)) and running (8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 km.h(-1), or until volitional exhaustion). Subjects completed 3 min of exercise at each speed, followed by 3-5 min of recovery. Activity counts from uni- and triaxial accelerometers, heart rate, and gas exchange were measured throughout exercise. RESULTS: All accelerometer outputs rose linearly with speed during walking. During running, uniaxial accelerometer outputs plateaued, whereas triaxial output rose linearly with speed up to and including 20 km.h(-1). Prediction of .VO2 during walking and running using heart rate (R2 = 0.42 and 0.59, respectively), accelerometer counts (R2 = 0.48-0.83 and 0.76, respectively), the combined methodologies (R2 = 0.54-0.85 and 0.80, respectively), and the combined methodologies calibrated with individual data (R2 = 0.99-1.00 and 0.99, respectively) was completed by linear regression. CONCLUSIONS: Uni- and triaxial accelerometer outputs have a linear relationship with speed during walking. During running, uniaxial accelerometer outputs plateau because of the biomechanics of running, whereas triaxial accelerometer output has a linear relationship. The combined methodologies predict .VO2 better than either predictor alone; a subject's individually calibrated data further improves .VO2 estimation.