Comparative Cranial Geometric Morphometrics among Wistar Albino, Sprague Dawley, and WAG/Rij Rat Strains.

This research utilizes geometric morphometrics to investigate shape variation in the skull, mandible, and teeth among three rat strains: Wistar Albino (WA), Sprague Dawley (SD), and WAG/Rij (WR). Through the analysis of 48 rats using 2D geometric morphometric techniques, significant differences in their skull morphology were identified. This study indicates a shift from a rectangular to an oval cranial shape across strains, with notable size and morphological variances. Particularly, the WR strain's skull shape significantly differs from the SD and WA strains, suggesting distinct ecological or genetic pathways. Compared to the skull, mandible shape differences are less pronounced, but still significant. The WR strain exhibits a distinct mandible shape, potentially reflecting ecological adaptations like dietary habits. The teeth shape of WR rats is the most distinct. SD rats consistently exhibited larger sizes in both skull and mandible measurements, while WR rats were notably smaller. Interestingly, sexual dimorphism was not statistically significant in skull and teeth sizes, aligning with findings from previous studies. However, the mandible showed clear size differences between sexes, underscoring its potential for adaptive or behavioral studies. In summary, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of morphological variations in rat strains, highlighting the intricate interplay of size, shape, and ecological factors. These findings lay a foundation for deeper explorations into the adaptive, ecological, or genetic narratives influencing rat morphology.

Chewing asymmetry in dogs: Exploring the importance of the fossa masseterica and first molar teeth morphology.

Dogs are animals with strong bite force. This strong bite mechanism has led to significant changes in the skeletal system such as fossa masseterica. It can be thought that one side is used more than the other side in chewing and is related to the preference of using the same side's hand, eye and foot. In the study, directional asymmetry and fluctuating asymmetry, which occurs as a result of chewing asymmetry, were examined on the first molar teeth and the fossa masseterica in 85 dog mandibles including a wide diversity of morphotypes. The association of high PC1 values for directional asymmetry with a pronounced cranial index, as evident in breeds like Pekingese, Pomeranian and Bulldog, indicates a potential evolutionary or selective breeding trend favouring brachycephaly. On the contrary, guardian breeds like the German shepherd and Bernese mountain dog, which typically require strong jaws for their roles, showcased reduced PC1 values, which might be related to their functional morphology. Similarly, the PCA results for the first molar teeth shape variations also highlighted the influence of cranial shape, with boxer dogs displaying notably higher PC1 values. The fluctuating asymmetrical distributions provided valuable insights into individualistic variations. Interestingly, no specific breed distribution trend was observed for these asymmetries, indicating a more individual-based variation rather than breed-based. It is essential to note that while these results provide valuable insights, further studies are required to understand the underlying causes better. Factors like genetic variations, developmental processes, dietary habits and external environmental factors could play pivotal roles in these observed morphological differences.

Shape and Size Variations of Distal Phalanges in Cattle.

Studies on the structure of the distal phalanx help explain the development of laminitis. Additionally, examining the structure of the distal phalanx from a taxonomic perspective also contributes to veterinary anatomy. In this study, we examined shape variation in the medial and lateral distal phalanx of both fore- and hindlimbs using the geometric morphometry method. We investigated whether the shape of the distal phalanx differed between phalanx positions and how much of the shape variation in this bone depends on size. For this purpose, distal phalanges from 20 Holstein cattle were used, and the bones were digitized in 3D. A draft containing 176 semi-landmarks was prepared for shape analysis, and this draft was applied to all samples using automated landmarking through point cloud alignment and correspondence analysis. A principal component analysis was performed to obtain general patterns of morphological variation. The centroid size (CS) was employed as an approximation of size. Although distal phalanx groups generally showed close variations, PC1 statistically separated the hindlimb lateral distal phalanx (HL) and the forelimb medial distal phalanx (FM) from each other in shape. While PC2 separated HL from other distal phalanx groups, PC3 separated fore- and hindlimb groups. The shape (Procrustes distance) of the hindlimb medial distal phalanx (HM) is markedly less variable than the other three phalanges. The smallest distal phalanx in size was HL. For both forelimb and hindlimb, the medial distal phalanges were larger than the lateral ones. Size (CS) was found to have an effect on PC1 and PC3. In this study, a reference model of the same breeds for distal phalanx was created. These results can provide useful information, especially in terms of veterinary anatomy, zooarchaeology, and paleontology.

Shape analysis of fossa masseterica and processus coronoideus in domestic cats (Felis catus) and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris).

Fossa masseterica, to which the musculus masseter is attached, is the pit on the lateral surface of the ramus mandibulae. Processus coronoideus is a protrusion on the upper part of fossa masseterica. Carnivores have a more developed fossa masseterica and a wider processus coronoideus than other species, due to their well-developed jaw muscles. However, there is limited information about the differences of these two structures among carnivorous species. In this study, it was investigated whether fossa masseterica and processus coronoideus differ in shape in domestic cats and domestic dogs. For this purpose, 22 dogs and 20 cats were examined by 3D geometric morphometry. Eighty-one landmarks were used on the fossa masseterica and processus coronoideus. The difference in centroid sizes and shape for cats and dogs was statistically significant (p < 0.0001). PC1 explained 26.47% of the total variance. It was seen that cats and dogs were completely separated according to PC1 results. In cats with a high PC1 value, the processus coronoideus was narrower than in dogs. Also, feline processus coronoideus was more curved than domestic canine processus coronoideus. In addition, the caudal inclination of processus coronoideus was deeper in dogs than in cats. Dogs had a negative PC1 value except for one sample (German Shepherd). The sample with the lowest PC1 value was the French Bulldog (female, 7 years, and 13 kg). Discriminant analysis results showed that the domestic cats and domestic dogs used in the study were completely separated from each other, and this difference was statistically significant. The results of this study showed that dogs with stronger jaw muscles had a deeper fossa masseterica and a wider processus coronoideus than cats.

Cranial morphology of Balkan and West Asian livestock guardian dogs.

Several large "shepherd" or livestock guardian dog (LGD) breeds were historically selectively bred to protect sheep and goat flocks in the Balkans, Anatolia, and the Caucasus regions. Although these breeds exhibit similar behavior, their morphology is different. Yet, the fine characterization of the phenotypic differences remains to be analyzed. The aim of this study is to characterize cranial morphology in the specific Balkan and West Asian LGD breeds. We use a 3D geometric morphometric in order to assess morphological differences regarding both shape and size between LGD breeds and compare this phenotypic diversity to close relative wild canids. Our results indicate that Balkan and Anatolian LGDs form a distinct cluster within a relatively large dog cranial size and shape diversity. Most LGDs display a cranial morphology that could be described as intermediate to the mastiff breeds and large herding dogs, except for the Romanian Mioritic shepherd which has a more brachycephalic cranium strongly resembling the bully-type dog cranial morphotype. Although often considered to represent an ancient type of dog, the Balkan-West Asian LGDs are clearly distinguishable from wolves, dingoes, and most other primitive and spitz-type dogs and this group displays a surprising cranial diversity.

Pelvis shape analysis with geometric morphometry in crossbreed cats.

In this study, the geometric morphometry of the pelvis of 32 (16 male, 16 female) crossbreed cats was investigated. Pelvis images of cats were obtained by computerized tomography method. Then, these images were modelled and geometric morphometry was applied. Shape variations of the pelvis of all individuals were obtained by principal component analysis. The first principal component (PC1) value explained 18.44% of the total variation. Second principal component (PC2) and third principal component (PC3) values explained 16.84% and 13.60% of the total variation, respectively. The difference in the shape of the pelvis of female and male cats was more pronounced in PC2 and PC3, which differed in the linea terminalis. The centroid size difference in terms of sex in the Procrustes ANOVA result is statistically insignificant (p > 0.05). However, the shape difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001). As a result of discriminant analysis, the pelvis of female and male cats was completely separated from each other. The crista iliaca of males was more lateral than females. Linea terminalis was wider in shape in females. The edge of the acetabulum was higher in shape in males. Regression analysis was performed to see whether the age and weight of the cats had an effect on the centroid size of the cats. Age and weight were not found to be effective on centroid size. The shape variations of the anatomical formations obtained by geometric morphometry method can be revealed, and it can be examined whether there is a shape difference between the groups.

Geometric and Morphometric Analysis of the Auditory Ossicles in the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes).

The use of carnivores as experimental models in auditory biology has led to a significant improvement regarding our understanding of the structure and function of the ear. Considering that data regarding the anatomy of the middle ear in the red fox are rare, this study aimed to describe the morphological and morphometrical features of the auditory ossicles in the red fox, as well as to provide their shape characteristics by geometric analysis. Nine adult red foxes were used in the study. The malleus, incus and stapes were extracted from the middle ear, prepared, photographed and measured using the software. For the geometric analysis, 19 landmarks were used. Following Principal Component Analysis (PCA), PC1 was found to explain approximately half of all variance (incus: 49.97%; malleus: 49.93%; stapes: 58.49%). The study demonstrated the similar anatomical organization of the auditory ossicles in line with important morphometric and basic geometric data, which can contribute to this field and add a useful perspective to the literature.

Skull variation in different breeds sheep from Balkan countries.

The Balkan Peninsula region has a very diverse agricultural and livestock tradition, and almost every country has its own local breed of sheep. Different breeds of sheep and different breeding traditions, despite the small geographical distance, determine the morphological and morphometric variability among animal breeds. In this study, this morphological diversity among the skulls of sheep breeds of some countries in the Balkan region was examined by the geometric morphometric method. 2D images of 86 sheep skulls from five different countries were analyzed from the dorsal view.Sixteen landmarks were used. The Bardhoka and the Ivesi breed have the broadest distributions of skull shape amongst the sheep breeds. The Ruda sheep is the most morphologically conservative. The sheep from Turkey (Ivesi) and Kosovo (Bardhoka) seem to differ mainly from sheep from other Balkan countries. Bardhoka and Ruda differ most from each other (p < 0.0001). The next biggest differences were between Ivesi and Ruda (p < 0.0011) and between Bardhoka and Sharri sheep (p < 0.0016). The sheep breeds Dubska and Lara e Polisit differ the least from each other. Geometrics morphometric analysis is a useful tool to detect differences in the shape of the skull of different sheep breeds and can therefore be used successfully for taxonomic purposes.

Detection of sexual dimorphism of the foramen magnum in cats using computed tomography.

The foramen magnum is a large round or oval opening surrounded by parts of the occipital bone. It connects the cranial cavity with the vertebral canal. The foramen magnum is an important structure having various applications in veterinary practice and forensic medicine. The variability of its shape and sexual dimorphism allow it to be exploited for sex and age identification in different species. This retrospective study used computed tomographic (CT) images of the caudal region of the 102 mixed-breed cat heads (55 males and 47 females). Eight linear measurements of the foramen magnum (FM) and occipital condyles were performed on CT images. The aim of the study was to find out if the linear measurements of the CT images of the foramen magnum showed variability between the sexes of the cats. In general, the values of the linear measurements in male cats were higher than in females. The mean maximum length of the foramen magnum (MLFM) was 11.18 ± 0.84 mm and 10.63 ± 0.72 mm in male and female cats, respectively. The mean maximum internal width of the foramen magnum (MWFM) was 14.43 ± 0.72 mm in males and 13.75 ± 1.01 mm in females. The difference between FM measurements in female and male cats was statistically significant (p value; FML: 0.001, FMW: 0.000). The MLFM confidence interval was 10.41 mm to 10.86 mm in female cats and 10.97 mm to 11.39 mm in males. The confidence interval of MWFM was 13.5 mm to 14.0 mm in female cats and 14.2 mm to 14.66 mm in male cats. With these intervals, we can predict the probability of sex in cats with 95% confidence. It was noted that measurements of the occipital condyles were not sex-determining. The difference in foramen magnum index in female and male cats was statistically insignificant (p value; 0.875). As a result of the study, it was seen that the linear measurements of the foramen magnum were sex-determining.

Examination of Shape Variation of the Skull in British Shorthair, Scottish Fold, and Van Cats.

A variety of skull shapes are frequently used for discrimination between animal species, breeds, and sexes. In this study, skulls of three different breeds of cats were examined by the geometric morphometric method, with the aim of revealing skull shape differences. For this purpose, 27 cats (6 British Shorthair, 7 Scottish Fold, and 14 Van cats) were used. The skulls of cats were modeled by computed tomography. Geometric morphometrics was applied using dorsal (8 landmarks, 63 semilandmarks) and lateral (8 landmarks, 63 semilandmarks) skull projections on these models. Centroid size differences between the breeds were statistically insignificant. However, the differences in shape were statistically significant for both the dorsal view and lateral view. Shape variation was less in the British Shorthair than in other breeds. Shape differences generally occurred around the orbit. In the skull of Scottish Folds, the orbit was situated more caudally than in other breeds. The British Shorthair had the largest orbital ring. In dorsal view, the Scottish Fold had the largest orbital diameter. The orbital ring of Van cats was smallest in both dorsal and lateral views. In the canonical variate analysis, it was seen that the breeds were separated from each other. The shape difference in the skull between different cat breeds could be revealed by geometric morphometrics. The results of this study provide useful information for taxonomy.

Radiographic analysis of skull in Van Cats, British Shorthairs and Scottish Folds.

The most significant bone used in taxonomic research is the skull. This study attempted to identify differences between the three cat species by measuring the skulls of each using computed tomography sections. The study used a total of 32 cat skulls, including 16 Van Cats, eight British Shorthairs and eight Scottish Folds. Van Cat had the highest values for cranial and skull length, whereas British Shorthair had the lowest values. The difference between the British Shorthair and Scottish Fold skull length and cranial length measures was not statistically significant. However, the Van Cat skull length result was statistically different from other species (p < 0.05). Scottish Fold had the broadest head (cranial width: 41.02 ± 0.79 mm). These results demonstrated that the scull of the Van Cat was longer but thinner than that of other species. In comparison to other species, the form of the Scottish Fold skull was more rounded. Internal height of cranium measurements for Van Cat and British Shorthair were statistically significant. In Van Cats, this measurement was 27.81 ± 1.58 mm, while in British Shorthairs, it was 30.23 ± 1.89 mm. Measurements of the foremen magnum were not statistically significant for any species. Van Cat's measures for the foramen magnum were the highest (Foramen magnum height: 11.59 ± 0.93 mm; Foramen magnum width: 14.18 ± 0.70 mm). Scottish Fold had the highest cranial index (Cranial index: 55.50 ± 4.02). Van Cat had the lowest value for this (Cranial index: 50.19 ± 2.16). Van Cat's cranial index value differed statistically from that of other species (p < 0.05). Between species, the foramen magnum index was not significant. None of the index values were statistically significant for Scottish Fold and British Shorthair. Foramen magnum width had the highest age-to-measurement value correlation (r = 0.310), although it was statistically insignificant. Skull length had the highest weight-to-measurement value correlations (R = 0.809), and it proved to be statistically significant. Skull length was the measuring value that distinguished male and female the most clearly (p = 0.000).

Skull of the Asian (Paradoxurus Hermaphroditus) and the golden (Paradoxurus Zeylonensis) palm civet: Geometric morphometric analysis using palate, tooth and frontal landmarks.

This study aims to determine the differences in skull between Asian and golden palm civets by geometric morphometric method. The landmarks were marked on these photographs, and principal component, classical cluster and canonical variance analyses were performed. The method of geometric morphometry of the skull is a powerful tool used to differentiate the species. Fourteen and 20 homologous landmarks were marked using tpsutil and tpsdig2 programs on the frontal and palatinal directional photographs, respectively. As a result of the study, the first principal component (PC1) accounted for 33.586% on the frontal view, 41.602% on the palatinal view of the total shape differences, respectively. Distinctive differences on the frontal and palatinal view were observed in the caudal, rostrolateral and the last molars and the caudal palatine, respectively.

A pilot study: Can calcaneus radiographic image be used to determine sex and breed in cats?

This study examined whether radiographic images measurements of the calcaneus in cats are determinative of sex and breed. For this purpose, radiographic images of 70 cats (37 male and 33 females) of different ages (from one to 18 years) and different breeds (41 mix-breed, 18 Scottish Fold and 11 British Shorthair cats) without orthopaedic problems were used. Right tarsal joint radiographs of these orthopaedically healthy cats were taken. Four linear measurements and two angle values of the calcaneus were obtained from the radiographic images. The MANOVA result showed that the most determining factor between the three groups was the greatest width (p value = 0.001). Calcaneal body length, calcaneal greatest length and calcaneal shortest depth were higher in mix-breed cats. Calcaneal tuber length was higher in Scottish Fold cats. The only statistically significant difference between Scottish Fold and British Shorthair was in the calcaneal tuber length (p value = 0.04). In the comparison made between the sexes regardless of species, the linear measurements in males were higher than in females. It was determined that these parameters are statistically significant in terms of sex differentiation in cats. Dorsal and plantar calcaneal angles are not sex determinants in cats. The effect of age on other measurements was analysed by correlation test. However, the effect of age on the measurements was not statistically significant. Mix-breed cats were examined in four groups according to their colour (grey, black-white, yellow, tri-colour). No statistically significant difference was found between calcaneal measurements of cats with different skin colour genotypes. In this study, calcaneus measurements were both determinative between breeds and sexes in cats.

Morphometric analysis for the sex determination of the skull of the Deltari Ilir dog (Canis lupus familiaris) of Kosovo.

This study aimed to explain the sex determination of the autochthonous dog Deltari Ilir with both morphometric and geometric analysis methods. For this purpose, 24 Deltari Ilir dog skulls (12 females and 12 males) were used in the study. The difference between males and females at 6 values was statistically significant. The most statistically significant difference was seen in the measurement of the greatest breadth of the occipital condyles (p < 0.000). This measurement was higher in male skulls. The next most significant difference was seen in the greatest inner height of the orbit measurement (p < 0.002). This measurement was also higher than for females. In general, the skull length measurements of male dogs were higher than that of females. Male dog skulls had greater skull length and skull height. The lateral view was used for geometric analysis and 14 landmarks were determined. As a result of principal component analysis, 22 PC values were obtained. PC1 accounted for 23.73% of the total variance. As a result of canonical variants analysis, it was observed that males and females were completely separated from each other. The caudal part of the males was wider than the females in geometric analysis. As a result of the study, sex-determining characteristics were revealed for the Deltari Ilir dog. It was seen that gender analysis could be done with both morphometric and geometric analysis methods. In addition, it was seen that morphometric results and geometric analysis results supported each other. Moreover, the results of the study will be useful in the function of comparative anatomy, in veterinary clinical practice, in zooarchaeology but why not also in the veterinary forensic investigation.

Sex Determination in Japanese Quails (Coturnix japonica) Using Geometric Morphometrics of the Skull.

The study investigated whether there is a morphological difference between the shape of the female and male quail's skulls. For this purpose, 18 female and 21 male quails were used. After the skulls were obtained, their photographs were taken, and geometric analysis was performed. Dorsal (14 landmarks), caudal (8 landmarks), and ventral (13 landmarks) images of skulls were evaluated. As a result of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), 28 principal components (PCs) were obtained for dorsal view, 16 PCs for caudal view, and 26 PCs for ventral view. PC1 (41.206%) for the caudal aspect explained the highest shape variation in terms of sex. It was seen that PC1 for dorsal view explained 33.046% and PC1 for ventral view explained 34.495% shape variation. For the dorsal view, the orbital pit of males was found to be deeper than females. The foramen magnum was narrower in female skulls. The lateral borders of the neurocranium were more pointed upwards in males. On ventral view, it was seen that male individuals had a wider skull in shape. Geometrically, it was determined that the male and female distinction was the best in the dorsal view. According to the dorsal view, only one male individual was found to be in the female group, and all other male individuals were completely separated from the females. After the dorsal view, the best distinction was seen ventrally. In the caudal examination, sexual discrimination was not fully seen. In this study, shape differences in quail's skulls were examined between sexes, and shape differences were revealed geometrically. In addition to traditional morphometry studies, it is thought that geometric analysis studies will add a useful perspective to the literature.

Hyalomma aegyptium the dominant hard tick in tortoises Tesdudo hermanni boettgeri found in different regions of Albania.

The purpose of this study was to estimate the level of hard tick infestation in the tortoise subspecies Testudo hermanni boettgeri living within the free-range hills and mountains of four regions of central and south Albania. In addition, this study showed the morphological differences of infested and non-infested tortoises in several geographic locations where tortoises are known to be infested with Hyalomma aegyptium, a natural carrier of different zoonotic pathogens. Thirty-six of 145 (24.8%) examined Hermann's tortoises were found to be infested with hard ticks. After the tortoises were carefully captured and controlled, a total of 67 H. aegyptium were collected: 47 in Berati, 11 in Ballshi and 9 in Saranda. None of the 40 tortoises in the Tirana region were found to be infested with ticks. All ticks were identified as H. aegyptium adults. The highest prevalence of tick infestation was in the Berati region at 49.1%, followed by the Ballshi and Saranda region by 24% and 12%, respectively. The mean infestation intensity was 1.86 H. aegyptium per Hermann's tortoise, and it was found that H. aegyptium are less common in large Hermann's tortoises. The number of H. aegyptium male ticks was negatively correlated with the body dimensions of Hermann's tortoises. Hyalomma aegyptium is the most prevalent tick in Hermann's tortoises in three regions of south Albania, and with a typical three-host life cycle in different wild and domestic animals, they may be a vector of zoonotic pathogens. Furthermore, other studies should be conducted to detect the presence of zoonotic pathogens in ticks from these regions and to estimate the risk of transmission in animals and humans.

Sex determination based on morphometric measurements in yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) around Istanbul.

BACKGROUND: Yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis), commonly found in Istanbul and their surroundings, have a monomorphic plumage, like other gull species. For this reason, sex determination cannot be made externally. In this study, a total of 60 adult Yellow-legged gulls, 33 males, and 27 females, collected from the coastal areas of Istanbul, were examined. Discriminating functions were developed to classify males and females using birds that were previously sexed by DNA analysis and abdominal dissection. RESULTS: Head length and bill depth were selected to build the discriminant function by the stepwise analysis. The function classified male gulls with an accuracy of 97.0% and females with an accuracy of 92.6%. Head length alone is the most accurate predictor in terms of the percentage of correct sex determination (90.9% for males, 92.6% for females). CONCLUSIONS: Functions that can easily determine sexual dimorphism for the population of Larus michahellis gulls around Istanbul have been put forward for the first time.

Radiogrametric Analysis of the Thoracic Limb Phalanges in Arabian Horses and Thoroughbred Horses.

In this study, it was aimed to determine the statistical differences between Arabian horses and Thoroughbred horses based on X-ray images of forelimb digital bones. Latero-medial X-ray images of digital bones of thoracic limbs were taken of 25 Arabian horses and 50 Thoroughbred healthy horses. The difference between males and females within the breed was statistically analyzed as well. Nine measurements and three indexes taken from phalanges of thoracic limbs were used. Thoroughbred horses did not differ significantly between sexes, as indicated by the ANOVA. For the Arabian horses, the length of the middle of the proximal phalanx (p < 0.05), the length of the middle of the middle phalanx (p < 0.001), and the length of the dorsal surface of the distal phalanx (p < 0.05) measurement points were found to be differentiated between sexes. In the analysis made between Thoroughbred horses and Arabian horses with no respect to sex, the critical measurement was the depth of the caput of the proximal phalanx. The discriminant analysis enabled the correct classification of 89.33% of the proximal phalanx samples to the exact breed. The correct classification rate was 77.33% in the case of middle phalanx and 54.67% in the case of distal phalanx. Measurement results of the distal phalanx were found to be insignificant between both breeds and sexes. The radiological measurements of digital bones showed that sexual dimorphism was not too expressed and that decisive differences were found between the breeds.

A Different Perspective on Sex Dimorphism in the Adult Hermann's Tortoise: Geometric Morphometry.

Eastern Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni boettgeri) is a subspecies of Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni) found in Albania. Gender determination is one of the crucial elements in determining the population dynamics in all species. Female and male adult tortoises look different, but these differences can be difficult to distinguish in captivity or when their sex indicators are deformed or injured. Therefore, the aim of this study was to use indirect and non-invasive methods such as geometric morphometric analysis to determine the sex of adult tortoises. For the geometric morphometry, 17 female and 23 male Hermann's tortoises were collected and photographed from the hills and mountains around the Tirana district of Albania between August and October 2019. Sexes were discriminated based on geometric morphometry, and plastron shape was a better indicator than carapace shape. In addition, abdominal, femoral and anal scutes on the plastron and the ratio of femoral to pectoral suture lengths were important for the sex distinction. Females had a larger plastron than males; this may have been supported by fecundity selection, because a large plastron suggests more volume in which to store eggs. The femoral and anal scutes were larger in male tortoises, and serve as a stronger base during mating. This study was conducted for adults only, and future studies are needed to determine if these indicators also apply to hatchlings and juveniles.

Morphological Divergence of Hermann's Tortoise (Testudo hermanni boettgeri Mojsisovits, 1889) in Albania.

Testudines show phenotypic plasticity, and variation among specific populations within a species is widespread. Morphological differences between populations may reflect ecological factors that drive adaptation to local conditions. In this context, we gathered basic data on the morphology of the Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni boettgeri Mojsisovits, 1889) to document their variation across different geographical regions. We surveyed Hermann's tortoises in five different locales within Albania during April and May 2020 and measured 20 morphological characteristics, including carapace and plastron dimensions. We measured 188 tortoises (81 males, 107 females) in this study, and females were larger (p = 0.0001) and heavier (p = 0.0001) than males. Mean straight carapace length (SCL) and body mass were 172.4 mm and 1128.8 g, respectively, for females, and 151.3 mm and 735 g, respectively, for males. The Albanian T. h. boettgeri were regionally diverged into three different populations that were situated in northern (Shkodra), central (Tirana, Berati, and Ballshi), and southern (Saranda) Albania. The body size (curved carapace length (CCL)) of females was positively correlated (r = 0.216; p = 0.025) with the latitude, in accordance with Bergmann's rule. However, there was no correlation between body size and latitude in males. These striking regional differences among Albanian T. h. boettgeri strongly suggest that further study of molecular variations and reproductive output of Hermann's tortoises is warranted.