TNIK inhibition sensitizes TNIK-overexpressing lung squamous cell carcinoma to radiotherapy.

Most patients with lung squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC) undergo chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and adjuvant immunotherapy for locally advanced disease. The efficacy of these treatments is still limited due to dose-limiting toxicity or locoregional recurrence. New combination approaches and targets such as actionable oncogenic drivers are needed to advance treatment options for LSCC patients. Moreover, other options for chemotherapy-ineligible patients are also limited. As such there is a critical need for the development of selective and potent chemoradiosensitizers for locally advanced LSCC. Here, we investigated inhibiting TRAF2 and NCK-interacting protein kinase (TNIK), which is amplified in 40% of LSCC patients, as a strategy to sensitize LSCC tumors to chemo- and radiotherapy. Employing a range of human LSCC cell lines and the TNIK inhibitor NCB-0846, we investigated the potential of TNIK as a chemo- and radiosensitizing target with in vitro and in vivo preclinical models. The combination of NCB-0846 with cisplatin or etoposide was at best additive. Interestingly, pre-treating LSCC cells with NCB-0846 prior to ionizing radiation (IR) potentiated the cytotoxicity of IR in a TNIK-specific fashion. Characterization of the radiosensitization mechanism suggested that TNIK inhibition may impair the DNA damage response and promote mitotic catastrophe in irradiated cells. In a subcutaneous xenograft in vivo model, pretreatment with NCB-0846 significantly enhanced the efficacy of IR and caused elevated necrosis in TNIKhigh LK2 tumors but not TNIKlow KNS62 tumors. Overall, these results indicate that TNIK inhibition may be a promising strategy to increase the efficacy of radiotherapy in LSCC patients with high TNIK expression.

Combined, yet separate: cocktails of carriers (not drugs) for actinium-225 α-particle therapy of solid tumors expressing moderate-to-low levels of targetable markers.

Alpha-particle radionuclide-antibody conjugates are being clinically evaluated against solid tumors even when they moderately express the targeted markers. At this limit of lower tumor-absorbed doses, to maintain efficacy, the few(er) intratumorally delivered alpha-particles need to traverse/hit as many different cancer cells as possible. We complement antibody-radioconjugate therapies with a separate nanocarrier delivering a fraction of the same total injected radioactivity to tumor regions geographically different than those affected by targeting antibodies; these carrier-cocktails collectively distribute the alpha-particle emitters better. METHODS: The efficacy of actinium-225 delivered by our carrier-cocktails was assessed in vitro and on mice with orthotopic MDA-MB-436 and/or MDA-MB-231 triple-negative breast cancers and/or an ectopic BxPC3 pancreatic cancer. Cells/tumors were chosen to express low-to-moderate levels of HER1, as model antibody-targeted marker. RESULTS: Independent of cell line, antibody-radioconjugates were most lethal on cell monolayers. On spheroids, with radii greater than alpha-particles' range, carrier-cocktails improved killing efficacy (p < 0.0500). Treatment with carrier-cocktails decreased the MDA-MB-436 and MDA-MB-231 orthotopic tumor volumes by 73.7% and 72.1%, respectively, relative to treatment with antibody-radioconjugates alone, at same total injected radioactivity; these carrier-cocktails completely eliminated formation of spontaneous metastases vs. 50% and 25% elimination in mice treated with antibody-radioconjugates alone. In BxPC3 tumor-bearing mice, carrier-cocktails increased the median survival to 25-26 days (in male-female animals) vs. 20-21 days of mice treated with antibody-radioconjugates alone (vs. 17 days for non-treated animals). Survival with carrier-cocktail radiotherapy was further prolonged by pre-injecting low-dose, standard-of-care, gemcitabine (p = 0.0390). CONCLUSION: Tumor-agnostic carrier-cocktails significantly enhance the therapeutic efficacy of existing alpha-particle radionuclide-antibody treatments.

Non-Viral Gene Delivery to Hepatocellular Carcinoma via Intra-Arterial Injection.

Purpose: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has limited treatment options, and modest survival after systemic chemotherapy or procedures such as transarterial chemoembolization (TACE). There is therefore a need to develop targeted therapies to address HCC. Gene therapies hold immense promise in treating a variety of diseases, including HCC, though delivery remains a critical hurdle. This study investigated a new approach of local delivery of polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) via intra-arterial injection for targeted local gene delivery to HCC tumors in an orthotopic rat liver tumor model. Methods: Poly(beta-amino ester) (PBAE) nanoparticles were formulated and assessed for GFP transfection in N1-S1 rat HCC cells in vitro. Optimized PBAE NPs were next administered to rats via intra-arterial injection with and without orthotopic HCC tumors, and both biodistribution and transfection were assessed. Results: In vitro transfection of PBAE NPs led to >50% transfected cells in adherent and suspension culture at a variety of doses and weight ratios. Administration of NPs via intra-arterial or intravenous injection demonstrated no transfection of healthy liver, while intra-arterial NP injection led to transfection of tumors in an orthotopic rat HCC model. Conclusion: Hepatic artery injection is a promising delivery approach for PBAE NPs and demonstrates increased targeted transfection of HCC tumors compared to intravenous administration, and offers a potential alternative to standard chemotherapies and TACE. This work demonstrates proof of concept for administration of polymeric PBAE nanoparticles via intra-arterial injection for gene delivery in rats.

Bacterial Cholecystitis and Cholangiohepatitis in Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus).

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a New World NHP, has emerged as important animal model in multiple areas of translational biomedical research. The quality of translational research in marmosets depends on early diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of their spontaneous diseases. Here, we characterize an outbreak of infectious cholangiohepatitis that affected 7 adult common marmosets in a single building over a 10-mo period. Marmosets presented for acute onset of lethargy, dull mentation, weight loss, dehydration, hyporexia, and hypothermia. Blood chemistries at presentation revealed markedly elevated hepatic and biliary enzymes, but mild neutrophilia was detected in only 1 of the 7. Affected marmosets were unresponsive to rigorous treatment and died or were euthanized within 48 h of presentation. Gross and histopathologic examinations revealed severe, necrosuppurative cholangiohepatitis and proliferative cholecystitis with bacterial colonies and an absence of gallstones. Perimortem and postmortem cultures revealed single or dual isolates of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Other postmortem findings included bile duct hyperplasia, periportal hepatitis, bile peritonitis, ulcerative gastroenteritis, and typhlitis. Environmental contamination of water supply equipment with Pseudomonas spp. was identified as the source of infection, but pathogenesis remains unclear. This type of severe, infectious cholangiohepatitis with proliferative cholecystitis with Pseudomonas spp. had not been reported previously in marmosets, and we identified and here describe several contributing factors in addition to contaminated drinking water.

Oxysterol misbalance critically contributes to Wilson disease pathogenesis.

Wilson disease (WD) is a metabolic disorder caused by inactivation of the copper-transporting ATPase 2 (ATP7B) and copper (Cu) overload in tissues. Excess Cu causes oxidative stress and pathologic changes with poorly understood mechanistic connections. In Atp7b-/- mice with established liver disease, Cu overload activates the stress-sensitive transcription factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2). Nrf2 targets, especially sulfotransferase 1e1 (Sult1e1), are strongly induced and cause elevation of sulfated sterols, whereas oxysterols are decreased. This sterol misbalance results in inhibition of the liver X receptor (LXR) and up-regulation of LXR targets associated with inflammatory responses. Pharmacological inhibition of Sult1e1 partially reverses oxysterol misbalance and LXR inhibition. Contribution of this pathway to advanced hepatic WD was demonstrated by treating mice with an LXR agonist. Treatment decreased inflammation by reducing expression of proinflammatory molecules, diminished fibrosis by down-regulating the noncanonical transforming growth factor-ß signaling pathway, and improved liver morphology and function. Thus, the identified pathway is an important driver of WD.

Canine Idiopathic Arteriopathy, Appendicular Bone Infarcts, and Neoplastic Transformation of Bone Infarcts in 108 Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris).

Osteosarcoma (OSA) is the most common primary bone tumor in both dogs and humans. The dog is an important research model for OSA, yet dogs have much higher prevalence of bone tumors than do humans, a disparity that has yet to be explained. Neoplastic transformation of cells within or adjacent to bone infarcts into primary bone tumors has been described in humans but only sparsely characterized in the veterinary literature. In this study, 653 cases of canine bone infarcts were received through a referral veterinary osteopathology service over a 14-y period. We identified an idiopathic disorder affecting the nutrient artery, termed canine idiopathic arteriopathy (CIA), which to our knowledge has no direct counterpart in human medicine. This disorder was documented alongside ischemic necrosis of the medullary cavity in 114 bone infarcts in 108 dogs. We hypothesize that CIA precipitated an ischemic environment, resulting in development of a bone infarct down- stream of the abnormal artery. In 52% (59 of 114) of cases, bone infarcts demonstrated evidence of repair (termed reparative bone infarcts [RBI]), while in 48% (55 of 114) of infarcts, a bone tumor was also present, including pleomorphic sarcoma, OSA, fibrosarcoma, and chondrosarcoma. In some cases, a spectrum of tumors was present. We hypothesize that the ischemic infarct environment provoked bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to attempt repair of the stroma, and in approximately half of cases, MSCs underwent neoplastic transformation (BINT) to produce tumors. The most common sites of bone infarcts were the distal femur, distal radius, proximal humerus, and distal tibia, coinciding with common sites of canine OSA. The authors propose that CIA leading to bone infarcts and infarct-derived tumors, in combination with possible underdiagnosis of canine bone infarcts and misdiagnosis of some RBI as neoplasia, may contribute to the higher reported proportion of bone tumors in dogs compared with humans.

HOXA5-Mediated Stabilization of IκBα Inhibits the NF-κB Pathway and Suppresses Malignant Transformation of Breast Epithelial Cells.

HOXA5 is a transcription factor and tumor suppressor that promotes differentiation of breast epithelial cells and is frequently lost during malignant transformation. HOXA5 loss alone, however, does not confer tumorigenicity. To determine which molecular alterations combined with loss of HOXA5 expression can transform cells, we examined isogenic derivatives of a nonmalignant breast epithelial cell line containing knock-in or knockout mutations in key breast cancer genes. Knockdown (KD) of HOXA5 in cells harboring double knock-in (DKI) of mutated PIK3CA (E545K) and HER2 (V777L) induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition and migration and promoted invasive tumor outgrowth within mouse mammary ducts. The NF-κB pathway was significantly upregulated in DKI cells following HOXA5 KD. HOXA5 KD upregulated multiple NF-κB target genes, including IL6. IκBα protein, but not RNA, expression was reduced in HOXA5-KD cells. HOXA5 bound and stabilized IκBα, forming a nuclear HOXA5-IκBα complex. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing database queries revealed that HOXA5 and IκBα are co-enriched at 528 genomic loci. In patients with breast cancer, high coexpression of HOXA5 and IκBα conferred a significantly better overall and progression-free survival. Collectively, these data suggest that HOXA5 suppresses malignancy in breast epithelial cells by blunting NF-κB action via stabilization of its inhibitor IκBα. SIGNIFICANCE: Loss of HOXA5 reduces IκBα stability and increases NF-κB signaling to exacerbate breast cancer aggressiveness, providing new insights into the tumor suppressor functions of HOXA5.

Polymeric nanoparticles for dual-targeted theranostic gene delivery to hepatocellular carcinoma.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) develops predominantly in the inflammatory environment of a cirrhotic liver caused by hepatitis, toxin exposure, or chronic liver disease. A targeted therapeutic approach is required to enable cancer killing without causing toxicity and liver failure. Poly(beta-amino-ester) (PBAE) nanoparticles (NPs) were used to deliver a completely CpG-free plasmid harboring mutant herpes simplex virus type 1 sr39 thymidine kinase (sr39) DNA to human HCC cells. Transfection with sr39 enables cancer cell killing with the prodrug ganciclovir and accumulation of 9-(4-18F-fluoro-3-hydroxymethylbutyl)guanine (18F-FHBG) for in vivo imaging. Targeting was achieved using a CpG-free human alpha fetoprotein (AFP) promoter (CpGf-AFP-sr39). Expression was restricted to AFP-producing HCC cells, enabling selective transfection of orthotopic HCC xenografts. CpGf-AFP-sr39 NP treatment resulted in 62% reduced tumor size, and therapeutic gene expression was detectable by positron emission tomography (PET). This systemic nanomedicine achieved tumor-specific delivery, therapy, and imaging, representing a promising platform for targeted treatment of HCC.

Two diverse carriers are better than one: A case study in α-particle therapy for prostate specific membrane antigen-expressing prostate cancers.

Partial and/or heterogeneous irradiation of established (i.e., large, vascularized) tumors by α-particles that exhibit only a 4-5 cell-diameter range in tissue, limits the therapeutic effect, since regions not being hit by the high energy α-particles are likely not to be killed. This study aims to mechanistically understand a delivery strategy to uniformly distribute α-particles within established solid tumors by simultaneously delivering the same α-particle emitter by two diverse carriers, each killing a different region of the tumor: (1) the cancer-agnostic, but also tumor-responsive, liposomes engineered to best irradiate tumor regions far from the vasculature, and (2) a separately administered, antibody, targeting any cancer-cell's surface marker, to best irradiate the tumor perivascular regions. We demonstrate that on a prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-expressing prostate cancer xenograft mouse model, for the same total injected radioactivity of the α-particle emitter Actinium-225, any radioactivity split ratio between the two carriers resulted in better tumor growth inhibition compared to the tumor inhibition when the total radioactivity was delivered by any of the two carriers alone. This finding was due to more uniform tumor irradiation for the same total injected radioactivity. The killing efficacy was improved even though the tumor-absorbed dose delivered by the combined carriers was lower than the tumor-absorbed dose delivered by the antibody alone. Studies on spheroids with different receptor-expression, used as surrogates of the tumors' avascular regions, demonstrated that our delivery strategy is valid even for as low as 1+ (ImmunoHistoChemistry score) PSMA-levels. The findings presented herein may hold clinical promise for those established tumors not being effectively eradicated by current α-particle radiotherapies.

The Common Marmoset-Biomedical Research Animal Model Applications and Common Spontaneous Diseases.

Marmosets are becoming more utilized in biomedical research due to multiple advantages including (1) a nonhuman primate of a smaller size with less cost for housing, (2) physiologic similarities to humans, (3) translatable hepatic metabolism, (4) higher numbers of litters per year, (5) genome is sequenced, molecular reagents are available, (6) immunologically similar to humans, (7) transgenic marmosets with germline transmission have been produced, and (8) are naturally occurring hematopoietic chimeras. With more use of marmosets, disease surveillance over a wide range of ages of marmosets has been performed. This has led to a better understanding of the disease management of spontaneous diseases that can occur in colonies. Knowledge of clinical signs and histologic lesions can assist in maximizing the colony's health, allowing for improved outcomes in translational studies within biomedical research. Here, we describe some basic husbandry, biology, common spontaneous diseases, and animal model applications for the common marmoset in biomedical research.

Bionized Nanoferrite Particles Alter the Course of Experimental Cryptococcus neoformans Pneumonia.

Cryptococcosis is a devastating fungal disease associated with high morbidity and mortality even when treated with antifungal drugs. Bionized nanoferrite (BNF) nanoparticles are powerful immunomodulators, but their efficacy for infectious diseases has not been investigated. Administration of BNF nanoparticles to mice with experimental cryptococcal pneumonia altered the outcome of infection in a dose response manner as measured by CFU and survival. The protective effects were higher at lower doses, with reductions in IL-2, IL-4, and TNF-α, consistent with immune modulation whereby reductions in inflammation translate into reduced host damage, clearance of infection, and longer survival.

An Improved 211At-Labeled Agent for PSMA-Targeted α-Therapy.

α-Particle emitters targeting the prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) proved effective in treating patients with prostate cancer who were unresponsive to the corresponding ß-particle therapy. 211At is an α-emitter that may engender less toxicity than other α-emitting agents. We synthesized a new 211At-labeled radiotracer targeting PSMA that resulted from the search for a pharmacokinetically optimized agent. Methods: A small series of 125I-labeled compounds was synthesized from tin precursors to evaluate the effect of the location of the radiohalogen within the molecule and the presence of lutetium in the chelate on biodistribution. On that basis, 211At-3-Lu was selected and evaluated in cell uptake and internalization studies, and biodistribution and PSMA-expressing (PSMA+) PC3 PIP tumor growth control were evaluated in experimental flank and metastatic (PC3-ML-Luc) models. A long-term (13-mo) toxicity study was performed for 211At-3-Lu, including tissue chemistries and histopathology. Results: The radiochemical yield of 211At-3-Lu was 17.8% ± 8.2%. Lead compound 211At-3-Lu demonstrated total uptake within PSMA+ PC3 PIP cells of 13.4 ± 0.5% of the input dose after 4 h of incubation, with little uptake in control cells. In SCID mice, 211At-3-Lu provided uptake that was 30.6 ± 4.8 percentage injected dose per gram (%ID/g) in PSMA+ PC3 PIP tumor at 1 h after injection, and this uptake decreased to 9.46 ± 0.96 %ID/g by 24 h. Tumor-to-salivary gland and tumor-to-kidney ratios were 129 ± 99 at 4 h and 130 ± 113 at 24 h, respectively. Deastatination was not significant (stomach, 0.34 ± 0.20 %ID/g at 4 h). Dose-dependent survival was demonstrated at higher doses (>1.48 MBq) in both flank and metastatic models. There was little off-target toxicity, as demonstrated by hematopoietic stability, unchanged tissue chemistries, weight gain rather than loss throughout treatment, and favorable histopathologic findings. Conclusion: Compound 211At-3-Lu or close analogs may provide limited and acceptable toxicity while retaining efficacy in management of prostate cancer.

Combination of Carriers with Complementary Intratumoral Microdistributions of Delivered α-Particles May Realize the Promise for 225Ac in Large, Solid Tumors.

α-particle radiotherapy has already been shown to be impervious to most resistance mechanisms. However, in established (i.e., large, vascularized) soft-tissue lesions, the diffusion-limited penetration depths of radiolabeled antibodies or nanocarriers (≤50-80 µm) combined with the short range of α-particles (4-5 cell diameters) may result in only partial tumor irradiation, potentially limiting treatment efficacy. To address this challenge, we combined carriers with complementary intratumoral microdistributions of the delivered α-particles. We used the α-particle generator 225Ac, and we combined a tumor-responsive liposome (which, on tumor uptake, releases into the interstitium a highly diffusing form of its radioactive payload [225Ac-DOTA], potentially penetrating the deeper parts of tumors where antibodies do not reach) with a separately administered, less-penetrating radiolabeled antibody (irradiating the tumor perivascular regions where liposome contents clear too quickly). Methods: In a murine model with orthotopic human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive BT474 breast cancer xenografts, the biodistributions of each carrier were evaluated, and the control of tumor growth was monitored after administration of the same total radioactivity of 225Ac delivered by the 225Ac-DOTA-encapsulating liposomes, by the 225Ac-DOTA-SCN--labeled trastuzumab, and by both carriers at equally split radioactivities. Results: Tumor growth was significantly more inhibited when the same total injected radioactivity was divided between the 2 separate carriers than when delivered by either of the carriers alone. The combined carriers enabled more uniform intratumoral microdistributions of α-particles, at a tumor dose that was lower than the dose delivered by the antibody alone. Conclusion: This strategy demonstrates that more uniform microdistributions of the delivered α-particles within established solid tumors improve efficacy even at lower tumor doses. Augmentation of antibody-targeted α-particle therapies with tumor-responsive liposomes may address partial tumor irradiation, improving therapeutic effects.

Hepatic Steatosis in the Mouse Model of Wilson Disease Coincides with a Muted Inflammatory Response.

Wilson disease (WND) is caused by inactivation of the copper transporter ATP7B and copper accumulation in tissues. WND presentations vary from liver steatosis to inflammation, fibrosis, and liver failure. Diets influence the liver phenotype in WND, but findings are inconsistent. To better understand the impact of excess calories on liver phenotype in WND, the study compared C57BL/6J Atp7b-/- and C57BL/6J mice fed for 12 weeks with Western diet or normal chow. Serum and liver metabolites, body fat content, liver histology, hepatic proteome, and copper content were analyzed. Wild-type and Atp7b-/- livers showed striking similarities in their responses to Western diet, most notably down-regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis, altered nuclear receptor signaling, and changes in cytoskeleton. Western diet increased body fat content and induced liver steatosis in males and females regardless of genotype; however, the effects were less pronounced in Atp7b-/- mice compared with those in the wild type mice. Although hepatic copper remained elevated in Atp7b-/- mice, liver inflammation was reduced. The diet diminished signaling by Rho GTPases, integrin, IL8, and reversed changes in cell cycle machinery and cytoskeleton. Overall, high calories decreased inflammatory response in favor of steatosis without improving markers of cell viability. Similar changes of cellular pathways during steatosis development in wild-type and Atp7b-/- mice explain histologic overlap between WND and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease despite opposite copper changes in these disorders.

Transport-driven engineering of liposomes for delivery of α-particle radiotherapy to solid tumors: effect on inhibition of tumor progression and onset delay of spontaneous metastases.

PURPOSE: Highly cytotoxic α-particle radiotherapy delivered by tumor-selective nanocarriers is evaluated on metastatic Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC). On vascularized tumors, the limited penetration of nanocarriers (<50-80 µm) combined with the short range of α-particles (40-100 µm) may, however, result in only partial tumor irradiation, compromising efficacy. Utilizing the α-particle emitter Actinium-225 (225Ac), we studied how the therapeutic potential of a general delivery strategy using nanometer-sized engineered liposomes was affected by two key transport-driven properties: (1) the release from liposomes, when in the tumor interstitium, of the highly diffusing 225Ac-DOTA that improves the uniformity of tumor irradiation by α-particles and (2) the adhesion of liposomes on the tumors' ECM that increases liposomes' time-integrated concentrations within tumors and, therefore, the tumor-delivered radioactivities. METHODS: On an orthotopic MDA-MB-231 TNBC murine model forming spontaneous metastases, we evaluated the maximum tolerated dose (MTD), biodistributions, and control of tumor growth and/or spreading after administration of 225Ac-DOTA-encapsulating liposomes, with different combinations of the two transport-driven properties. RESULTS: At 83% of MTD, 225Ac-DOTA-encapsulating liposomes with both properties (1) eliminated formation of spontaneous metastases and (2) best inhibited the progression of orthotopic xenografts, compared to liposomes lacking one or both properties. These findings were primarily affected by the extent of uniformity of the intratumoral microdistributions of 225Ac followed by the overall tumor uptake of radioactivity. At the MTD, long-term toxicities were not detected 9.5 months post administration. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate the potential of a general, transport-driven strategy enabling more uniform and prolonged solid tumor irradiation by α-particles without cell-specific targeting.

A prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeted prodrug with a favorable in vivo toxicity profile.

Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is a promising target for the treatment of advanced prostate cancer (PC) and various solid tumors. Although PSMA-targeted radiopharmaceutical therapy (RPT) has enabled significant imaging and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) responses, accumulating clinical data are beginning to reveal certain limitations, including a subgroup of non-responders, relapse, radiation-induced toxicity, and the need for specialized facilities for its administration. To date non-radioactive attempts to leverage PSMA to treat PC with antibodies, nanomedicines or cell-based therapies have met with modest success. We developed a non-radioactive prodrug, SBPD-1, composed of a small-molecule PSMA-targeting moiety, a cancer-selective cleavable linker, and the microtubule inhibitor monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE). SBPD-1 demonstrated high binding affinity to PSMA (Ki = 8.84 nM) and selective cytotoxicity to PSMA-expressing PC cell lines (IC50 = 3.90 nM). SBPD-1 demonstrated a significant survival benefit in two murine models of human PC relative to controls. The highest dose tested did not induce toxicity in immunocompetent mice. The high specific targeting ability of SBPD-1 to PSMA-expressing tumors and its favorable toxicity profile warrant its further development.

A Procarcinogenic Colon Microbe Promotes Breast Tumorigenesis and Metastatic Progression and Concomitantly Activates Notch and ß-Catenin Axes.

The existence of distinct breast microbiota has been recently established, but their biological impact in breast cancer remains elusive. Focusing on the shift in microbial community composition in diseased breast compared with normal breast, we identified the presence of Bacteroides fragilis in cancerous breast. Mammary gland as well as gut colonization with enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis (ETBF), which secretes B. fragilis toxin (BFT), rapidly induces epithelial hyperplasia in the mammary gland. Breast cancer cells exposed to BFT exhibit "BFT memory" from the initial exposure. Intriguingly, gut or breast duct colonization with ETBF strongly induces growth and metastatic progression of tumor cells implanted in mammary ducts, in contrast to nontoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis. This work sheds light on the oncogenic impact of a procarcinogenic colon bacterium ETBF on breast cancer progression, implicates the ß-catenin and Notch1 axis as its functional mediators, and proposes the concept of "BFT memory" that can have far-reaching biological implications after initial exposure to ETBF. SIGNIFICANCE: B. fragilis is an inhabitant of breast tissue, and gut or mammary duct colonization with ETBF triggers epithelial hyperplasia and augments breast cancer growth and metastasis. Short-term exposure to BFT elicits a "BFT memory" with long-term implications, functionally mediated by the ß-catenin and Notch1 pathways.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 995.

Prenatal stress enhances NNK-induced lung tumors in A/J mice.

Children born to women who experience stress during pregnancy have an increased risk of cancer in later life, but no previous animal studies have tested such a link. We questioned whether prenatal stress (PS) in A/J mice affected the development of lung tumors after postnatal response to tobacco-specific nitrosamine, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). Timed-bred A/J mice were randomly assigned on gestation day 12.5 to PS by restraint for 5 consecutive days or control (no restraint). Adult offspring of control and stressed pregnancies were all treated with three NNK injections (50 mg/kg every other day) and euthanized 16 weeks later to examine their lungs. Compared with controls, PS dams exhibited significantly increased levels of plasma corticosterone, increased adrenal weights and decreased fetus weights without fetal loss. Prenatally stressed litters had a significantly higher neonatal death rate within first week of life, and surviving male and female offspring developed lung epithelial proliferations with increase multiplicity, increased area and aggressive morphology. PS also induced more advanced atypical adenomatous hyperplasia lesions. We found no difference in lung NNK-derived methyl DNA adducts, but PS did significantly enhance CD3+ T cell and Foxp3+ T cell tumor infiltration. PS significantly increases multiplicity, area of NNK-induced lung tumors and advanced morphology. PS did not affect production of NNK-derived methyl DNA adducts but did increase lymphocytic infiltration of lung tumors. To our knowledge, this is the first animal model of PS with evaluation of cancer development in offspring.

Development of prostate specific membrane antigen targeted ultrasound microbubbles using bioorthogonal chemistry.

Prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeted microbubbles (MBs) were developed using bioorthogonal chemistry. Streptavidin-labeled MBs were treated with a biotinylated tetrazine (MBTz) and targeted to PSMA expressing cells using trans-cyclooctene (TCO)-functionalized anti-PSMA antibodies (TCO-anti-PSMA). The extent of MB binding to PSMA positive cells for two different targeting strategies was determined using an in vitro flow chamber. The initial approach involved pretargeting, where TCO-anti-PSMA was first incubated with PSMA expressing cells and followed by MBTz, which subsequently showed a 2.8 fold increase in the number of bound MBs compared to experiments performed in the absence of TCO-anti-PSMA. Using direct targeting, where TCO-anti-PSMA was linked to MBTz prior to initiation of the assay, a 5-fold increase in binding compared to controls was observed. The direct targeting approach was subsequently evaluated in vivo using a human xenograft tumor model and two different PSMA-targeting antibodies. The US signal enhancements observed were 1.6- and 5.9-fold greater than that for non-targeted MBs. The lead construct was also evaluated in a head-to-head study using mice bearing both PSMA positive or negative tumors in separate limbs. The human PSMA expressing tumors exhibited a 2-fold higher US signal compared to those tumors deficient in human PSMA. The results demonstrate both the feasibility of preparing PSMA-targeted MBs and the benefits of using bioorthogonal chemistry to create targeted US probes.

A preclinical murine model for the early detection of radiation-induced brain injury using magnetic resonance imaging and behavioral tests for learning and memory: with applications for the evaluation of possible stem cell imaging agents and therapies.

Stem cell therapies are being developed for radiotherapy-induced brain injuries (RIBI). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers advantages for imaging transplanted stem cells. However, most MRI cell-tracking techniques employ superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (SPIOs), which are difficult to distinguish from hemorrhage. In current preclinical RIBI models, hemorrhage occurs concurrently with other injury markers. This makes the evaluation of the recruitment of transplanted SPIO-labeled stem cells to injury sites difficult. Here, we developed a RIBI model, with early injury markers reflective of hippocampal dysfunction, which can be detected noninvasively with MRI and behavioral tests. Lesions were generated by sub-hemispheric irradiation of mouse hippocampi with single X-ray beams of 80 Gy. Lesion formation was monitored with anatomical and contrast-enhanced MRI and changes in memory and learning were assessed with fear-conditioning tests. Early injury markers were detected 2 weeks after irradiation. These included an increase in the permeability of the blood-brain barrier, demonstrated by a 92 ± 20 % contrast enhancement of the irradiated versus the non-irradiated brain hemispheres, within 15 min of the administration of an MRI contrast agent. A change in short-term memory was also detected, as demonstrated by a 40.88 ± 5.03 % decrease in the freezing time measured during the short-term memory context test at this time point, compared to that before irradiation. SPIO-labeled stem cells transplanted contralateral to the lesion migrated toward the lesion at this time point. No hemorrhage was detected up to 10 weeks after irradiation. This model can be used to evaluate SPIO-based stem cell-tracking agents, short-term.