A two-step mechanism for the binding of the HIV-1 MPER epitope by the 10E8 antibody onto biosensor-supported lipid bilayers.

HIV-1 antibodies targeting the carboxy-terminal area of the membrane-proximal external region (ctMPER) are close to exerting viral pan-neutralization. Here, we reconstituted the ctMPER epitope as the N-terminal extremity of the Env glycoprotein transmembrane domain helix and immobilized it onto biosensor-supported lipid bilayers. We assessed the binding mechanism of anti-MPER antibody 10E8 through Surface Plasmon Resonance, and found, through equilibrium and kinetic binding analyses as a function of bilayer thickness, peptide length, and paratope mutations, that 10E8 engages first with the epitope peptide (encounter), limited by ctMPER helix accessibility at the membrane surface, and then inserts into the lipid bilayer assisted by favorable Fab-membrane interactions (docking). This mechanistic information may help in devising new strategies to develop more efficient MPER-targeting vaccines.

Functional Delineation of a Protein-Membrane Interaction Hotspot Site on the HIV-1 Neutralizing Antibody 10E8.

Antibody engagement with the membrane-proximal external region (MPER) of the envelope glycoprotein (Env) of HIV-1 constitutes a distinctive molecular recognition phenomenon, the full appreciation of which is crucial for understanding the mechanisms that underlie the broad neutralization of the virus. Recognition of the HIV-1 Env antigen seems to depend on two specific features developed by antibodies with MPER specificity: (i) a large cavity at the antigen-binding site that holds the epitope amphipathic helix; and (ii) a membrane-accommodating Fab surface that engages with viral phospholipids. Thus, besides the main Fab-peptide interaction, molecular recognition of MPER depends on semi-specific (electrostatic and hydrophobic) interactions with membranes and, reportedly, on specific binding to the phospholipid head groups. Here, based on available cryo-EM structures of Fab-Env complexes of the anti-MPER antibody 10E8, we sought to delineate the functional antibody-membrane interface using as the defining criterion the neutralization potency and binding affinity improvements induced by Arg substitutions. This rational, Arg-based mutagenesis strategy revealed the position-dependent contribution of electrostatic interactions upon inclusion of Arg-s at the CDR1, CDR2 or FR3 of the Fab light chain. Moreover, the contribution of the most effective Arg-s increased the potency enhancement induced by inclusion of a hydrophobic-at-interface Phe at position 100c of the heavy chain CDR3. In combination, the potency and affinity improvements by Arg residues delineated a protein-membrane interaction site, whose surface and position support a possible mechanism of action for 10E8-induced neutralization. Functional delineation of membrane-interacting patches could open new lines of research to optimize antibodies of therapeutic interest that target integral membrane epitopes.

Focal accumulation of aromaticity at the CDRH3 loop mitigates 4E10 polyreactivity without altering its HIV neutralization profile.

Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) against HIV-1 are frequently associated with the presence of autoreactivity/polyreactivity, a property that can limit their use as therapeutic agents. The bnAb 4E10, targeting the conserved Membrane proximal external region (MPER) of HIV-1, displays almost pan-neutralizing activity across globally circulating HIV-1 strains but exhibits nonspecific off-target interactions with lipid membranes. The hydrophobic apex of the third complementarity-determining region of the heavy chain (CDRH3) loop, which is essential for viral neutralization, critically contributes to this detrimental effect. Here, we have replaced the aromatic/hydrophobic residues from the apex of the CDRH3 of 4E10 with a single aromatic molecule through chemical modification to generate a variant that preserves the neutralization potency and breadth of 4E10 but with reduced autoreactivity. Collectively, our study suggests that the localized accumulation of aromaticity by chemical modification provides a pathway to ameliorate the adverse effects triggered by the CDRH3 of anti-HIV-1 MPER bnAbs.

Affinity for the Interface Underpins Potency of Antibodies Operating In Membrane Environments.

The contribution of membrane interfacial interactions to recognition of membrane-embedded antigens by antibodies is currently unclear. This report demonstrates the optimization of this type of antibodies via chemical modification of regions near the membrane but not directly involved in the recognition of the epitope. Using the HIV-1 antibody 10E8 as a model, linear and polycyclic synthetic aromatic compounds are introduced at selected sites. Molecular dynamics simulations predict the favorable interactions of these synthetic compounds with the viral lipid membrane, where the epitope of the HIV-1 glycoprotein Env is located. Chemical modification of 10E8 with aromatic acetamides facilitates the productive and specific recognition of the native antigen, partially buried in the crowded environment of the viral membrane, resulting in a dramatic increase of its capacity to block viral infection. These observations support the harnessing of interfacial affinity through site-selective chemical modification to optimize the function of antibodies that target membrane-proximal epitopes.

BFL1 modulates apoptosis at the membrane level through a bifunctional and multimodal mechanism showing key differences with BCLXL.

BFL1 is a relatively understudied member of the BCL2 protein family which has been implicated in the pathogenesis and chemoresistance of a variety of human cancers, including hematological malignancies and solid tumours. BFL1 is generally considered to have an antiapoptotic function, although its precise mode of action remains unclear. By quantitatively analyzing BFL1 action in synthetic membrane models and in cells, we found that BFL1 inhibits apoptosis through three distinct mechanisms which are similar but not identical to those of BCLXL, the paradigmatic antiapoptotic BCL2 family protein. Strikingly, alterations in lipid composition during apoptosis activate a prodeath function of BFL1 that is based on noncanonical oligomerization of the protein and breaching of the permeability barrier of the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM). This lipid-triggered prodeath function of BFL1 is absent in BCLXL and also differs from that of the apoptotic effector BAX, which sets it apart from other BCL2 family members. Our findings support a new model in which BFL1 modulates apoptosis through a bifunctional and multimodal mode of action that is distinctly regulated by OMM lipids compared to BCLXL.

Membrane insertion of the BAX core, but not latch domain, drives apoptotic pore formation.

Despite intensive research effort, how the paradigmatic proapoptotic protein BAX forms lethal apoptotic pores at the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM) remains incompletely understood. Here, we used biophysical tools and minimalist model systems to identify the specific regions in BAX driving apoptotic pore formation, and to gain more insight into underlying mechanisms. Fluorescence mapping revealed that fully active BAX adopts a BH3-in-groove dimeric conformation in MOM-like membranes, with BAX α4-α5 helices belonging to its core domain inserting deeper into the membrane lipid bilayer than BAX α6-α8 helices belonging to its latch domain. In our reconstituted systems, antiapoptotic BCLXL formed canonical heterodimeric BH3-in-groove complexes with BAX, and blocked membrane insertion of BAX core α4-α5 helices, but not BAX latch α6-α8 helices. Moreover, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) conjugation (PEGylation) at multiple individual sites along the BAX core, but not latch domain, potently inhibited BAX pore-forming activity. Additional combined computational and experimental evidence revealed that the BAX core α5 helix displays a bilayer-destabilizing membrane interaction mode that is absent in BAX latch α6-α8 helices. Based on this collective set of evidence, we propose that membrane insertion of the BAX core, but not latch domain, is critical for BAX apoptotic pore formation.

Functional Contacts between MPER and the Anti-HIV-1 Broadly Neutralizing Antibody 4E10 Extend into the Core of the Membrane.

The exceptional breadth of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) against the membrane-proximal external region (MPER) of the transmembrane protein gp41 makes this class of antibodies an ideal model to design HIV vaccines. From a practical point of view, however, the preparation of vaccines eliciting bNAbs is still a major roadblock that limits their clinical application. Fresh mechanistic insights are necessary to develop more effective strategies. In particular, the function of the unusually long complementarity-determining region three of the heavy chain (CDRH3) of 4E10, an anti-MPER bNAb, is an open question that fascinates researchers in the field. Residues comprising the apex region are dispensable for engagement of the epitope in solution; still, their single mutation profoundly impairs the neutralization capabilities of the antibody. Since this region is very hydrophobic, it has been proposed that the apex is essential for anchoring the antibody to the viral membrane where MPER resides. Herein, we have critically examined this idea using structural, biophysical, biochemical, and cell-based approaches. Our results demonstrate that the apex region is not just a "greasy" spot merely increasing the affinity of the antibody for the membrane. We demonstrate the three-dimensional engagement of the apex region of the CDRH3 with the conglomerate of gp41 epitope and membrane lipids as a means of effective binding and neutralization of the virus. This mechanism of recognition suggests a standard route of antibody ontogeny. Therefore, we need to focus our efforts on recreating a more realistic MPER/lipid immunogen in order to generate more effective anti-HIV-1 vaccines.

Peripheral Membrane Interactions Boost the Engagement by an Anti-HIV-1 Broadly Neutralizing Antibody.

The 4E10 antibody displays an extreme breadth of HIV-1 neutralization and therefore constitutes a suitable model system for structure-guided vaccine design and immunotherapeutics against AIDS. In this regard, the relevance of autoreactivity with membrane lipids for the biological function of this antibody is still a subject of controversy. To address this dispute, herein we have compared the membrane partitioning ability of the 4E10 antibody and several of its variants, which were mutated at the region of the paratope surface in contact with the membrane interface. We first employed a physical separation approach (vesicle flotation) and subsequently carried out quantitative fluorescence measurements in an intact system (spectroscopic titration), using 4E10 Fab labeled with a polarity-sensitive fluorescent probe. Moreover, recognition of epitope peptide in membrane was demonstrated by photo-cross-linking assays using a Fab that incorporated the genetically encoded unnatural amino acid p-benzoylphenylalanine. The experimental data ruled out that the proposed stereospecific recognition of viral lipids was necessary for the function of the antibody. In contrast, our data suggest that nonspecific electrostatic interactions between basic residues of 4E10 and acidic phospholipids in the membranes contribute to the observed biological function. Moreover, the energetics of membrane partitioning indicated that 4E10 behaves as a peripheral membrane protein, tightening the binding to the ligand epitope inserted in the viral membrane. The implications of these findings for the natural production and biological function of this antibody are discussed.

Structural basis for broad neutralization of HIV-1 through the molecular recognition of 10E8 helical epitope at the membrane interface.

The mechanism by which the HIV-1 MPER epitope is recognized by the potent neutralizing antibody 10E8 at membrane interfaces remains poorly understood. To solve this problem, we have optimized a 10E8 peptide epitope and analyzed the structure and binding activities of the antibody in membrane and membrane-like environments. The X-ray crystal structure of the Fab-peptide complex in detergents revealed for the first time that the epitope of 10E8 comprises a continuous helix spanning the gp41 MPER/transmembrane domain junction (MPER-N-TMD; Env residues 671-687). The MPER-N-TMD helix projects beyond the tip of the heavy-chain complementarity determining region 3 loop, indicating that the antibody sits parallel to the plane of the membrane in binding the native epitope. Biophysical, biochemical and mutational analyses demonstrated that strengthening the affinity of 10E8 for the TMD helix in a membrane environment, correlated with its neutralizing potency. Our research clarifies the molecular mechanisms underlying broad neutralization of HIV-1 by 10E8, and the structure of its natural epitope. The conclusions of our research will guide future vaccine-design strategies targeting MPER.

Lipid-dependent bimodal MCL1 membrane activity.

Increasing evidence indicates that the mitochondrial lipid membrane environment directly modulates the BCL2 family protein function, but the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood. Here, we used minimalistic reconstituted systems to examine the influence of mitochondrial lipids on MCL1 activity and conformation. Site-directed mutagenesis and fluorescence spectroscopic analyses revealed that the BCL2 homology region of MCL1 (MCL1ΔNΔC) inhibits permeabilization of MOM-like membranes exclusively via canonical BH3-into-groove interactions with both cBID-like activators and BAX-like effectors. Contrary to currently popular models, MCL1ΔNΔC did not require becoming embedded into the membrane to inhibit membrane permeabilization, and interaction with cBID was more productive for MCL1ΔNΔC inhibitory activity than interaction with BAX. We also report that membranes rich in cardiolipin (CL), but not phosphatidylinositol (PI), trigger a profound conformational change in MCL1ΔNΔC leading to membrane integration and unleashment of an intrinsic lipidic pore-forming activity of the molecule. Cholesterol (CHOL) reduces both the conformational change and the lipidic pore-forming activity of MCL1ΔNΔC in CL-rich membranes, but it does not affect the interaction of MCL1ΔNΔC with proapoptotic partners in MOM-like liposomes. In addition, we identified MCL1α5 as the minimal domain of the protein responsible for its membrane-permeabilizing function both in model membranes and at the mitochondrial level. Our results provide novel mechanistic insight into MCL1 function in the context of a membrane milieu and add significantly to a growing body of evidence supporting an active role of mitochondrial membrane lipids in BCL2 protein function.