Sustained metabolic benefits of ΔTRTX-Ac1, a tarantula venom-derived peptide, when administered together with exenatide in high-fat fed mice.

AIM: The aim of the present study was to assess the long-term therapeutic efficacy of a recently discovered 28 amino acid peptide, Δ-theraphotoxin-Ac1 (Δ-TRTX-Ac1), originally isolated from venom of the Aphonopelma chalcodes tarantula. Δ-TRTX-Ac has previously been shown to improve pancreatic beta-cell function and suppress appetite. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Δ-TRTX-Ac1 was administered twice daily in high-fat fed (HFF) mice with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced insulin deficiency, namely HFF/STZ mice, for 28 days both alone and in combination with the venom-derived glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) mimetic, exenatide. RESULTS: Initial pharmacokinetic profiling of ΔTRTX-Ac1 revealed a plasma half-life of 2 h in mice, with ΔTRTX-Ac1 also evidenced in the pancreas 12 h post-injection. Accordingly, HFF-STZ mice received twice-daily injections of Δ-TRTX-Ac1, exenatide or a combination of both peptides for 28 days. As anticipated, HFF/STZ mice presented with hyperglycaemia, impaired glucose tolerance, decreased plasma and pancreatic insulin and disturbed pancreatic islet morphology. Administration of ΔTRTX-Ac1 reduced body weight, improved glucose tolerance and augmented pancreatic insulin content while decreasing glucagon content. Exenatide had similar benefits on body weight and pancreatic hormone content while also reducing circulating glucose. ΔTRTX-Ac1 decreased energy expenditure on day 28 whereas exenatide had no impact. All treatment regimens restored pancreatic islet and beta-cell area towards lean control levels, which was linked to significantly elevated beta-cell proliferation rates. In terms of benefits of combined ΔTRTX-Ac1 and exenatide treatment over individual agents, there was augmentation of glucose tolerance and ambulatory activity with combination therapy, and these mice presented with increased pancreatic glucagon. CONCLUSION: These data highlight the therapeutic promise of ΔTRTX-Ac1 for diabetes, with suggestion that benefits could be enhanced through combined administration with exenatide.

Therapeutic Potential of Peptides Derived from Animal Venoms: Current Views and Emerging Drugs for Diabetes.

The therapeutic potential of venom-derived drugs is evident today. Currently, several significant drugs are FDA approved for human use that descend directly from animal venom products, with others having undergone, or progressing through, clinical trials. In addition, there is growing awareness of the important cosmeceutical application of venom-derived products. The success of venom-derived compounds is linked to their increased bioactivity, specificity and stability when compared to synthetically engineered compounds. This review highlights advancements in venom-derived compounds for the treatment of diabetes and related disorders. Exendin-4, originating from the saliva of Gila monster lizard, represents proof-of-concept for this drug discovery pathway in diabetes. More recent evidence emphasises the potential of venom-derived compounds from bees, cone snails, sea anemones, scorpions, snakes and spiders to effectively manage glycaemic control. Such compounds could represent exciting exploitable scaffolds for future drug discovery in diabetes, as well as providing tools to allow for a better understanding of cell signalling pathways linked to insulin secretion and metabolism.

Xenin and Related Peptides: Potential Therapeutic Role in Diabetes and Related Metabolic Disorders.

Xenin bioactivity and its role in normal physiology has been investigated by several research groups since its discovery in 1992. The 25 amino acid peptide hormone is secreted from the same enteroendocrine K-cells as the incretin hormone glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), with early studies highlighting the biological significance of xenin in the gastrointestinal tract, along with effects on satiety. Recently there has been more focus directed towards the role of xenin in insulin secretion and potential for diabetes therapies, especially through its ability to potentiate the insulinotropic actions of GIP as well as utilisation in dual/triple acting gut hormone therapeutic approaches. Currently, there is a lack of clinically approved therapies aimed at restoring GIP bioactivity in type 2 diabetes mellitus, thus xenin could hold real promise as a diabetes therapy. The biological actions of xenin, including its ability to augment insulin secretion, induce satiety effects, as well as restoring GIP sensitivity, earmark this peptide as an attractive antidiabetic candidate. This minireview will focus on the multiple biological actions of xenin, together with its proposed mechanism of action and potential benefits for the treatment of metabolic diseases such as diabetes.

A novel neurotensin/xenin fusion peptide enhances ß-cell function and exhibits antidiabetic efficacy in high-fat fed mice.

Neurotensin and xenin possess antidiabetic potential, mediated in part through augmentation of incretin hormone, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), action. In the present study, fragment peptides of neurotensin and xenin, acetyl-neurotensin and xenin-8-Gln, were fused together to create Ac-NT/XN-8-Gln. Following assessment of enzymatic stability, effects of Ac-NT/XN-8-Gln on in vitro ß-cell function were studied. Subchronic antidiabetic efficacy of Ac-NT/XN-8-Gln alone, and in combination with the clinically approved GLP-1 receptor agonist exendin-4, was assessed in high-fat fed (HFF) mice. Ac-NT/XN-8-Gln was highly resistant to plasma enzyme degradation and induced dose-dependent insulin-releasing actions (P<0.05 to P<0.01) in BRIN-BD11 ß-cells and isolated mouse islets. Ac-NT/XN-8-Gln augmented (P<0.001) the insulinotropic actions of GIP, while possessing independent ß-cell proliferative (P<0.001) and anti-apoptotic (P<0.01) actions. Twice daily treatment of HFF mice with Ac-NT/XN-8-Gln for 32 days improved glycaemic control and circulating insulin, with benefits significantly enhanced by combined exendin-4 treatment. This was reflected by reduced body fat mass (P<0.001), improved circulating lipid profile (P<0.01) and reduced HbA1c concentrations (P<0.01) in the combined treatment group. Following an oral glucose challenge, glucose levels were markedly decreased (P<0.05) only in combination treatment group and superior to exendin-4 alone, with similar observations made in response to glucose plus GIP injection. The combined treatment group also presented with improved insulin sensitivity, decreased pancreatic insulin content as well as increased islet and ß-cell areas. These data reveal that Ac-NT/XN-8-Gln is a biologically active neurotensin/xenin fusion peptide that displays prominent antidiabetic efficacy when administered together with exendin-4.

Proglucagon-Derived Peptides as Therapeutics.

Initially discovered as an impurity in insulin preparations, our understanding of the hyperglycaemic hormone glucagon has evolved markedly over subsequent decades. With description of the precursor proglucagon, we now appreciate that glucagon was just the first proglucagon-derived peptide (PGDP) to be characterised. Other bioactive members of the PGDP family include glucagon-like peptides -1 and -2 (GLP-1 and GLP-2), oxyntomodulin (OXM), glicentin and glicentin-related pancreatic peptide (GRPP), with these being produced via tissue-specific processing of proglucagon by the prohormone convertase (PC) enzymes, PC1/3 and PC2. PGDP peptides exert unique physiological effects that influence metabolism and energy regulation, which has witnessed several of them exploited in the form of long-acting, enzymatically resistant analogues for treatment of various pathologies. As such, intramuscular glucagon is well established in rescue of hypoglycaemia, while GLP-2 analogues are indicated in the management of short bowel syndrome. Furthermore, since approval of the first GLP-1 mimetic for the management of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in 2005, GLP-1 therapeutics have become a mainstay of T2DM management due to multifaceted and sustainable improvements in glycaemia, appetite control and weight loss. More recently, longer-acting PGDP therapeutics have been developed, while newfound benefits on cardioprotection, bone health, renal and liver function and cognition have been uncovered. In the present article, we discuss the physiology of PGDP peptides and their therapeutic applications, with a focus on successful design of analogues including dual and triple PGDP receptor agonists currently in clinical development.

Enzymatically stable analogue of the gut-derived peptide xenin on beta-cell transdifferentiation in high fat fed and insulin-deficient Ins1Cre/+ ;Rosa26-eYFP mice.

BACKGROUND: The antidiabetic effects of the gut hormone xenin include augmenting insulin secretion and positively affecting pancreatic islet architecture. METHODS: The current study has further probed pancreatic effects through sub-chronic administration of the long-acting xenin analogue, xenin-25[Lys13 PAL], in both high fat fed (HFF) and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced insulin-deficient Ins1Cre/+ ;Rosa26-eYFP transgenic mice. Parallel effects on metabolic control and pancreatic islet morphology, including islet beta-cell lineage tracing were also assessed. RESULTS: Xenin-25[Lys13 PAL] treatment reversed body weight loss induced by STZ, increased plasma insulin and decreased blood glucose levels. There were less obvious effects on these parameters in HFF mice, but all xenin-25[Lys13 PAL] treated mice exhibited decreased pancreatic alpha-cell areas and circulating glucagon. Xenin-25[Lys13 PAL] treatment fully, or partially, returned overall islet and beta-cell areas in STZ- and HFF mice to those of lean control animals, respectively, and was consistently associated with decreased beta-cell apoptosis. Interestingly, xenin-25[Lys13 PAL] also increased beta-cell proliferation and decreased alpha-cell apoptosis in STZ mice, with reduced alpha-cell growth noted in HFF mice. Lineage tracing studies revealed that xenin-25[Lys13 PAL] reduced the number of insulin positive pancreatic islet cells that lost their beta-cell identity, in keeping with a decreased transition of insulin positive to glucagon positive cells. These beneficial effects on islet cell differentiation were linked to maintained expression of Pdx1 within beta-cells. Xenin-25[Lys13 PAL] treatment was also associated with increased numbers of smaller sized islets in both models. CONCLUSIONS: Benefits of xenin-25[Lys13 PAL] on diabetes includes positive modulation of islet cell differentiation, in addition to promoting beta-cell growth and survival.

The methionine aminopeptidase 2 inhibitor, TNP-470, enhances the antidiabetic properties of sitagliptin in mice by upregulating xenin.

The therapeutic mechanism of action of methionine aminopeptidase 2 (MetAP2) inhibitors for obesity-diabetes has not yet been fully defined. Xenin, a K-cell derived peptide hormone, possesses an N-terminal Met amino acid residue. Thus, elevated xenin levels could represent a potential pharmacological mechanism of MetAP2 inhibitors, since long-acting xenin analogues have been shown to improve obesity-diabetes. The present study has assessed the ability of the MetAP2 inhibitor, TNP-470, to augment the antidiabetic utility of the incretin-enhancer drug, sitagliptin, in high fat fed (HFF) mice. TNP-470 (1 mg/kg) and sitagliptin (25 mg/kg) were administered once-daily alone, or in combination, to diabetic HFF mice (n = 10) for 18 days. Individual therapy with TNP-470 or sitagliptin resulted in numerous metabolic benefits including reduced blood glucose, increased circulating and pancreatic insulin and improved glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, pyruvate tolerance and overall pancreatic islet architecture. Further assessment of metabolic rate revealed that all treatments reduced respiratory exchange ratio and increased locomotor activity. All sitagliptin treated mice also exhibited increased energy expenditure. In addition, treatment with TNP-470 alone, or in combination with sitagliptin, reduced food intake and body weight, as well as elevating plasma and intestinal xenin. Importantly, combined sitagliptin and TNP-470 therapy was associated with further significant benefits beyond that observed by either treatment alone. This included more rapid restoration of normoglycaemia, superior glucose tolerance, increased circulating GIP concentrations and an enhanced pancreatic beta:alpha cell ratio. In conclusion, these data demonstrate that TNP-470 increases plasma and intestinal xenin levels, and augments the antidiabetic advantages of sitagliptin.

Dapagliflozin and Liraglutide Therapies Rapidly Enhanced Bone Material Properties and Matrix Biomechanics at Bone Formation Site in a Type 2 Diabetic Mouse Model.

The aim of this study is to compare head-to-head the effects of dapagliflozin and liraglutide on bone strength and bone material properties in a pre-clinical model of diabetes-obesity. Combined low-dose streptozotocin and high fat feeding were employed in mice to promote obesity, insulin resistance, and hyperglycaemia. Mice were administered daily for 28 days with saline vehicle, 1 mg/kg dapagliflozin or 25 nmol/kg liraglutide. Bone strength was assessed by three-point bending and nanoindentation. Bone material properties were investigated by Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy/imaging. Although diabetic controls presented with dramatic reductions in mechanical strength, no deterioration of bone microarchitecture was apparent. At the tissue level, significant alterations in phosphate/amide ratio, carbonate/phosphate ratio, tissue water content, crystal size index, collagen maturity and collagen glycation were observed and linked to alteration of matrix biomechanics. Dapagliflozin and liraglutide failed to improve bone strength by 3-point bending or bone microarchitecture during the 28-day-treatment period. At bone formation site, dapagliflozin enhanced phosphate/amide ratio, mineral maturity, and reduced tissue water content, crystal size index, and collagen glycation. Liraglutide had significant effects on phosphate/amide ratio, tissue water content, crystal size index, mature collagen crosslinks, collagen maturity, and collagen glycation. At bone formation site, both drugs modulated matrix biomechanics. This study highlighted that these two molecules are effective in improving bone material properties and modulating matrix biomechanics at bone formation site. This study also highlighted that the resulting effects on bone material properties are not identical between dapagliflozin and liraglutide and not only mediated by lower blood glucose.

Ψ-Xenin-6 enhances sitagliptin effectiveness, but does not improve glucose tolerance.

Recent studies have characterised the biological properties and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) potentiating actions of an enzymatically stable, C-terminal hexapeptide fragment of the gut hormone xenin, namely Ψ-xenin-6. Given the primary therapeutic target of clinically approved dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor drugs is augmentation of the incretin effect, the present study has assessed the capacity of Ψ-xenin-6 to enhance the antidiabetic efficacy of sitagliptin in high fat fed (HFF) mice. Individual administration of either sitagliptin or Ψ-xenin-6 alone for 18 days resulted in numerous metabolic benefits and positive effects on pancreatic islet architecture. As expected, sitagliptin therapy was associated with elevated circulating GIP and GLP-1 levels, with concurrent Ψ-xenin-6 not elevating these hormones or enhancing DPP-4 inhibitory activity of the drug. However, combined sitagliptin and Ψ-xenin-6 therapy in HFF mice was associated with further notable benefits, beyond that observed with either treatment alone. This included body weight change similar to lean controls, more pronounced and rapid benefits on circulating glucose and insulin as well as additional improvements in attenuating gluconeogenesis. Favourable effects on pancreatic islet architecture and peripheral insulin sensitivity were more apparent with combined therapy. Expression of hepatic genes involved in gluconeogenesis and insulin action were partially, or fully, restored to normal levels by the treatment regimens, with beneficial effects more prominent in the combination treatment group. These data demonstrate that combined treatment with Ψ-xenin-6 and sitagliptin did not alter glucose tolerance but does offer some metabolic advantages, which merit further consideration as a therapeutic option for type 2 diabetes.

Effects of long-acting GIP, xenin and oxyntomodulin peptide analogues on alpha-cell transdifferentiation in insulin-deficient diabetic GluCreERT2;ROSA26-eYFP mice.

Enzyme-resistant long-acting forms of the gut-derived peptide hormones, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), xenin and oxyntomodulin (Oxm) have been generated, and exert beneficial effects on diabetes control and pancreatic islet architecture. The current study has employed alpha-cell lineage tracing in GluCreERT2;ROSA26-eYFP transgenic mice to investigate the extent to which these positive pancreatic effects are associated with alpha- to beta-cell transdifferentiation. Twice-daily administration of (D-Ala2)GIP, xenin-25[Lys13PAL] or (D-Ser2)-Oxm[Lys38PAL] for 10 days to streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice did not affect body weight, food intake or blood glucose levels, but (D-Ser2)-Oxm[Lys38PAL] reduced (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001) fluid intake and circulating glucagon. (D-Ala2)GIP and (D-Ser2)-Oxm[Lys38PAL] also augmented (P < 0.05 and P < 0.01, respectively) pancreatic insulin content. Detrimental changes of pancreatic morphology induced by STZ in GluCreERT2;ROSA26-eYFP mice were partially reversed by all treatment interventions. This was associated with reduced (P < 0.05) apoptosis and increased (P < 0.05 to P < 0.01) proliferation of beta-cells, alongside opposing effects on alpha-cells, with (D-Ala2)GIP and (D-Ser2)-Oxm[Lys38PAL] being particularly effective in this regard. Alpha-cell lineage tracing revealed that induction of diabetes was accompanied by increased (P < 0.01) transdifferentiation of glucagon positive alpha-cells to insulin positive beta-cells. This islet cell transitioning process was augmented (P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively) by (D-Ala2)GIP and (D-Ser2)-Oxm[Lys38PAL]. (D-Ser2)-Oxm[Lys38PAL] also significantly (P < 0.05) promoted loss of alpha-cell identity in favour of other endocrine islet cells. These data highlight intra-islet benefits of (D-Ala2)GIP, xenin-25[Lys13PAL] and (D-Ser2)-Oxm[Lys38PAL] in diabetes with beta-cell loss induced by STZ. The effects appear to be independent of glycaemic change, and associated with alpha- to beta-cell transdifferentiation for the GIP and Oxm analogues.

Blockade of gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) action as a novel means of countering insulin resistance in the treatment of obesity-diabetes.

Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) is a 42 amino acid hormone secreted from intestinal K-cells in response to nutrient ingestion. Despite a recognised physiological role for GIP as an insulin secretagogue to control postprandial blood glucose levels, growing evidence reveals important actions of GIP on adipocytes and promotion of fat deposition in tissues. As such, blockade of GIP receptor (GIPR) action has been proposed as a means to counter insulin resistance, and improve metabolic status in obesity and related diabetes. In agreement with this, numerous independent observations in animal models support important therapeutic applications of GIPR antagonists in obesity-diabetes. Sustained administration of peptide-based GIPR inhibitors, low molecular weight GIPR antagonists, GIPR neutralising antibodies as well as genetic knockout of GIPR's or vaccination against GIP all demonstrate amelioration of insulin resistance and reduced body weight gain in response to high fat feeding. These observations were consistently associated with decreased accumulation of lipids in peripheral tissues, thereby alleviating insulin resistance. Although the impact of prolonged GIPR inhibition on bone turnover still needs to be determined, evidence to date indicates that GIPR antagonists represent an exciting novel treatment option for obesity-diabetes.

The Genetic Links to Anxiety and Depression (GLAD) Study: Online recruitment into the largest recontactable study of depression and anxiety.

BACKGROUND: Anxiety and depression are common, debilitating and costly. These disorders are influenced by multiple risk factors, from genes to psychological vulnerabilities and environmental stressors, but research is hampered by a lack of sufficiently large comprehensive studies. We are recruiting 40,000 individuals with lifetime depression or anxiety and broad assessment of risks to facilitate future research. METHODS: The Genetic Links to Anxiety and Depression (GLAD) Study (www.gladstudy.org.uk) recruits individuals with depression or anxiety into the NIHR Mental Health BioResource. Participants invited to join the study (via media campaigns) provide demographic, environmental and genetic data, and consent for medical record linkage and recontact. RESULTS: Online recruitment was effective; 42,531 participants consented and 27,776 completed the questionnaire by end of July 2019. Participants' questionnaire data identified very high rates of recurrent depression, severe anxiety, and comorbidity. Participants reported high rates of treatment receipt. The age profile of the sample is biased toward young adults, with higher recruitment of females and the more educated, especially at younger ages. DISCUSSION: This paper describes the study methodology and descriptive data for GLAD, which represents a large, recontactable resource that will enable future research into risks, outcomes, and treatment for anxiety and depression.

Effects of 2 Novel PYY(1-36) Analogues, (P3L31P34)PYY(1-36) and PYY(1-36)(Lys12PAL), on Pancreatic Beta-Cell Function, Growth, and Survival.

Recent studies have identified a beneficial role for peptide tyrosine tyrosine (PYY) on pancreatic beta-cell function and survival. These effects are linked to the activation of neuropeptide Y1 receptors (NPYR1s) by PYY(1-36). However, PYY(1-36) is subject to rapid degradation by dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4), resulting is the loss of NPYR1 activity. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop 2 enzymatically stable PYY(1-36) analogues, namely, (P3L31P34)PYY(1-36) and PYY(1-36)(Lys12PAL), with further structural modifications to enhance NPYR1 specificity. As expected, (P3L31P34)PYY(1-36) was fully resistant to DPP-4-mediated degradation in vitro, whereas PYY(1-36) and PYY(1-36)(Lys12PAL) were both liable to DPP-4 breakdown. PYY(1-36) and (P3L31P34)PYY(1-36) induced significant reductions in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) from BRIN BD11 cells, but only PYY(1-36) diminished alanine-stimulated insulin secretion. In contrast, PYY(1-36)(Lys12PAL) had no impact on GSIS or alanine-induced insulin release. All 3 PYY peptides significantly enhanced proliferation in BRIN BD11 and 1.1B4 beta-cell lines, albeit only at the highest concentration examined, 10-6 M, for (P3L31P34)PYY(1-36) and PYY(1-36)(Lys12PAL) in BRIN BD11 cells. Regarding the protection of beta-cells against cytokine-induced apoptosis, PYY(1-36) induced clear protective effects. Both (P3L31P34)PYY(1-36) and PYY(1-36)(Lys12PAL) offered some protection against apoptosis in BRIN BD11 cells, but were significantly less efficacious than PYY(1-36). Similarly, in 1.1B4 cells, both PYY analogues (10-6 M) protected against cytokine-induced apoptosis, but (P3L31P34)PYY(1-36) was significantly less effective than PYY(1-36). All 3 PYY peptides had no impact on refeeding in overnight fasted mice. These data underline the beta-cell benefits of PYY(1-36) and highlight the challenges of synthesising stable, bioactive, NPYR1-specific, PYY(1-36) analogues.

Effect of Dapagliflozin Treatment on the Expression of Renal Sodium Transporters/Channels on High-Fat Diet Diabetic Mice.

BACKGROUND: Inhibition of the Na+/glucose co-transporter 2 is a new therapeutic strategy for diabetes. It is unclear how proximal loss of Na+ (and glucose) affects the subsequent Na+ transporters in the proximal tubule (PT), thick ascending limb of loop of Henle (TAL), distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct (CD). METHODS: Mice on a high fat diet were administered 3 doses streptozotocin 6 days prior to oral dapagliflozin administration or vehicle for 18 days. A control group of lean mice were also included. Body weight and glucose were recorded at regular intervals during treatment. Renal Na+ transporters expression in nephron segments were analyzed by RT-qPCR and Western blot. RESULTS: Dapagliflozin treatment resulted in a significant reduction in body weight and blood glucose compared to vehicle-treated controls. mRNA results showed that Na+-hydrogen antiporter 3 (NHE3), Na+/phosphate cotransporter (NaPi-2a) and epithelial Na+ channel expression was increased, Ncx1, ENaCß and ENaCγ expression declined (p all < 0.05), respectively, in dapagliflozin-treated mice when compared with saline vehicle mice. Na-K-2Cl cotransporters and Na-Cl cotransporter mRNA expression was not affected by dapagliflozin treatment. Na+/K+-ATPase (Atp1b1) expression was also increased significantly by dapagliflozin treatment, but it did not affect Atp1a1 and glucose transporter 2 expression. Western blot analysis showed that NaPi-2a, NHE3 and ATP1b1 expression was upregulated in dapagliflozin-treated diabetic mice when compared with saline vehicle mice (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that dapagliflozin treatment augments compensatory changes in the renal PT in diabetic mice.

Exendin-4(Lys27 PAL)/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln: A novel acylated GLP-1/gastrin/xenin hybrid peptide that improves metabolic status in obese-diabetic (ob/ob) mice.

BACKGROUND: Therapeutic benefits of peptide-based drugs is limited by rapid renal elimination. METHODS: Therefore, to prolong the biological action profile of the recently characterized triple-acting hybrid peptide, exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln, a fatty acid (C-16) has been covalently attached, creating exendin-4(Lys27 PAL)/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln. Exendin-4/gastrin and liraglutide/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln were also synthesized as direct comparator peptides. RESULTS: All hybrid peptides evoked significant concentration-dependent increases of insulin secretion from isolated murine islets and BRIN-BD11 cells. Following administration of peptides with glucose to mice, all hybrids significantly reduced the overall glycaemic excursion and increased insulin concentrations. In contrast to other treatments, exendin-4(Lys27 PAL)/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln displayed impressive antihyperglycaemic actions even 12 hours after administration, highlighting protracted duration of effects. Exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln, exendin-4/gastrin, and exendin-4(Lys27 PAL)/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln were then progressed to a 31-day twice-daily treatment regimen in obese-diabetic ob/ob mice. All treatments decreased nonfasting glucose and HbA1c concentrations, as well as enhancing circulating and pancreatic insulin levels. Exendin-4/gastrin and exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln also decreased food intake. Glucose tolerance was improved by all treatments, but only exendin-4(Lys27 PAL)/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln augmented glucose-induced insulin secretion. Interestingly, treatment regimens that included a xenin component induced clear advantages on the metabolic response to glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and the glucose-lowering actions of insulin. CONCLUSION: This study emphasizes the therapeutic promise of long-acting, multi-targeting hybrid gut peptides for type 2 diabetes.

Characterisation and antidiabetic utility of a novel hybrid peptide, exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln.

Enteroendocrine derived hormones such as glucagon-like-peptide-1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), gastrin and xenin are known to exert complementary beneficial metabolic effects in diabetes. This study has assessed the biological activity and therapeutic utility of a novel GLP-1/gastrin/xenin hybrid peptide, namely exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln hybrid, both alone and in combination with the stable GIP mimetic, (DAla2)GIP. Exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln increased in vitro insulin secretion to a similar or superior extent, as the parent peptides. Insulinotropic effects were mainly linked to modulation of GLP-1 and neurotensin receptors. Exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln also augmented the insulinotropic actions of (DAla2)GIP. Acute administration of exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln in mice induced significant appetite suppressive, glucose lowering and insulin secretory effects, with a duration of biological action beyond 8 h. Twice daily administration of exendin-4, exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln, either alone or in combination with (DAla2)GIP, reduced circulating glucose, increased plasma insulin as well as improving glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity and metabolic response to GIP in high fat fed mice. Body weight, food intake, circulating glucagon and amylase activity were unaltered. All hybrid peptide treated high fat mice exhibited marked reductions in LDL-cholesterol and body fat mass. Energy expenditure and locomotor activity were increased in mice treated with exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln in combination with (DAla2)GIP. Interestingly, exendin-4 and exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln treatment, but not exendin-4/gastrin/xenin-8-Gln in combination with (DAla2)GIP, reduced pancreatic islet and beta-cell area when compared to high fat controls. These studies confirm that unimolecular multi-agonist peptide hormones exert beneficial metabolic effects in diabetes, highlighting their potential as novel treatment strategies.

Emerging therapeutic potential for xenin and related peptides in obesity and diabetes.

Xenin-25 is a 25-amino acid peptide hormone co-secreted from the same enteroendocrine K-cell as the incretin peptide glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. There is no known specific receptor for xenin-25, but studies suggest that at least some biological actions may be mediated through interaction with the neurotensin receptor. Original investigation into the physiological significance of xenin-25 focussed on effects related to gastrointestinal transit and satiety. However, xenin-25 has been demonstrated in pancreatic islets and recently shown to possess actions in relation to the regulation of insulin and glucagon secretion, as well as promoting beta-cell survival. Accordingly, the beneficial impact of xenin-25, and related analogues, has been assessed in animal models of diabetes-obesity. In addition, studies have demonstrated that metabolically active fragment peptides of xenin-25, particularly xenin-8, possess independent therapeutic promise for diabetes, as well as serving as bioactive components for the generation of multi-acting hybrid peptides with antidiabetic potential. This review focuses on continuing developments with xenin compounds in relation to new therapeutic approaches for diabetes-obesity.

GLP-1 receptor agonists show neuroprotective effects in animal models of diabetes.

Enzyme-resistant receptor agonists of the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) have shown positive therapeutic effects in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). T2DM has detrimental effects on brain function and impairment of cognition and memory formation has been described. One of the underlying mechanisms is most likely insulin de-sensitization in the brain, as insulin improves cognitive impairments and enhances learning. Treatment with GLP-1 receptor agonists improves memory formation and impairment of synaptic plasticity observed in animal models of diabetes-obesity. Furthermore, it has been shown that diabetes impairs growth factor signalling in the brain and reduces energy utilization in the cortex. Inflammation and apoptotic signalling was also increased. Treatment with GLP-1 receptor agonists improved neuronal growth and repair and reduced inflammation and apoptosis as well as oxidative stress. In comparison with the diabetes drug metformin, GLP-1 receptor agonists were able to improve glycemic control and reverse brain impairments, whereas metformin only normalized blood glucose levels. Clinical studies in non-diabetic patients with neurodegenerative disorders showed neuroprotective effects following administration with GLP-1 receptor agonists, demonstrating that neuroprotective effects are independent of blood glucose levels.

A novel GLP-1/xenin hybrid peptide improves glucose homeostasis, circulating lipids and restores GIP sensitivity in high fat fed mice.

Combined modulation of peptide hormone receptors including, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and xenin, have established benefits for the treatment of diabetes. The present study has assessed the biological actions and therapeutic efficacy of a novel exendin-4/xenin-8-Gln hybrid peptide, both alone and in combination with the GIP receptor agonist (DAla2)GIP. Exendin-4/xenin-8-Gln was enzymatically stable and exhibited enhanced insulin secretory actions when compared to its parent peptides. Exendin-4/xenin-8-Gln also possessed ability to potentiate the in vitro actions of GIP. Acute administration of exendin-4/xenin-8-Gln in mice induced appetite suppressive effects, as well as significant and protracted glucose-lowering and insulin secretory actions. Twice daily administration of exendin-4/xenin-8-Gln, alone or in combination with (DAla2)GIP, for 21-days significantly reduced non-fasting glucose and increased circulating insulin levels in high fat fed mice. In addition, all exendin-4/xenin-8-Gln treated mice displayed improved glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity and metabolic responses to GIP. Combination therapy with (DAla2)GIP did not result in any obvious further benefits. Metabolic improvements in all treatment groups were accompanied by reduced pancreatic beta-cell area and insulin content, suggesting reduced insulin demand. Interestingly, body weight, food intake, circulating glucagon, metabolic rate and amylase activity were unaltered by the treatment regimens. However, all treatment groups, barring (DAla2)GIP alone, exhibited marked reductions in total- and LDL-cholesterol. Furthermore, exendin-4 therapy also reduced circulating triacylglycerol. This study highlights the positive antidiabetic effects of exendin-4/xenin-8-Gln, and suggests that combined modulation of GLP-1 and xenin related signalling pathways represents an exciting treatment option for type 2 diabetes.

Sustained high-fat diet modulates inflammation, insulin signalling and cognition in mice and a modified xenin peptide ameliorates neuropathology in a chronic high-fat model.

AIMS: To demarcate pathological events in the brain as a result of short-term to chronic high-fat-diet (HFD) feeding, which leads to cognitive impairment and neuroinflammation, and to assess the efficacy of Xenin-25[Lys(13)PAL] in chronic HFD-fed mice. METHODS: C57BL/6 mice were fed an HFD or a normal diet for 18 days, 34 days, 10 and 21 weeks. Cognition was assessed using novel object recognition and the Morris water maze. Markers of insulin signalling and inflammation were measured in brain and plasma using immunohistochemistry, quantitative PCR and multi-array technology. Xenin-25[Lys(13)PAL] was also administered for 5 weeks in chronic HFD-fed mice to assess therapeutic potential at a pathological stage. RESULTS: Recognition memory was consistently impaired in HFD-fed mice and spatial learning was impaired in 18-day and 21-week HFD-fed mice. Gliosis, oxidative stress and IRS-1 pSer616 were increased in the brain on day 18 in HFD-fed mice and were reduced by Xenin-25[Lys(13)PAL] in 21-week HFD-fed mice. In plasma, HFD feeding elevated interleukin (IL)-6 and chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 at day 34 and IL-5 at week 10. In the brain, HFD feeding reduced extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 (ERK2), mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), NF-κB1, protein kinase C (PKC)θ and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) mRNA at week 10 and increased expression of glucacon-like peptide-1 receptor, inhibitor of NF-κB kinase ß, ERK2, mTOR, NF-κB1, PKCθ and TLR4 at week 21, elevations that were abrogated by Xenin-25[Lys(13)PAL]. CONCLUSIONS: HFD feeding modulates cognitive function, synapse density, inflammation and insulin resistance in the brain. Xenin-25[Lys(13)PAL] ameliorated markers of inflammation and insulin signalling dysregulation and may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of diseases associated with neuroinflammation or perturbed insulin signalling in the brain.