The Role of Brown Adipose Tissue and Energy Metabolism in Mammalian Thermoregulation during the Perinatal Period.

Hypothermia is one of the most common causes of mortality in neonates, and it could be developed after birth because the uterus temperature is more elevated than the extrauterine temperature. Neonates use diverse mechanisms to thermoregulate, such as shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis. These strategies can be more efficient in some species, but not in others, i.e., altricials, which have the greatest difficulty with achieving thermoneutrality. In addition, there are anatomical and neurological differences in mammals, which may present different distributions and amounts of brown fat. This article aims to discuss the neuromodulation mechanisms of thermoregulation and the importance of brown fat in the thermogenesis of newborn mammals, emphasizing the analysis of the biochemical, physiological, and genetic factors that determine the distribution, amount, and efficiency of this energy resource in newborns of different species. It has been concluded that is vital to understand and minimize hypothermia causes in newborns, which is one of the main causes of mortality in neonates. This would be beneficial for both animals and producers.

Vitality in Newborn Farm Animals: Adverse Factors, Physiological Responses, Pharmacological Therapies, and Physical Methods to Increase Neonate Vigor.

Vitality is the vigor newborn animals exhibit during the first hours of life. It can be assessed by a numerical score, in which variables, such as heart rate, respiratory rate, mucous membranes' coloration, time the offspring took to stand up, and meconium staining, are monitored. Vitality can be affected by several factors, and therapies are used to increase it. This manuscript aims to review and analyze pharmacological and physical therapies used to increase vitality in newborn farm animals, as well as to understand the factors affecting this vitality, such as hypoxia, depletion of glycogen, birth weight, dystocia, neurodevelopment, hypothermia, and finally, the physiological mechanism to achieve thermostability. It has been concluded that assessing vitality immediately after birth is essential to determine the newborn's health and identify those that need medical intervention to minimize the deleterious effect of intrapartum asphyxia. Vitality assessment should be conducted by trained personnel and adequate equipment. Evaluating vitality could reduce long-term neonatal morbidity and mortality in domestic animals, even if it is sometimes difficult with the current organization of some farms. This review highlights the importance of increasing the number of stock people during the expected days of parturitions to reduce long-term neonatal morbidity and mortality, and thus, improve the farm's performance.

Biomarkers of Stress in Companion Animals.

Stress experienced by companion animals could impair their physical and psychological welfare, impacting their social relationships in domestic environments [...].

Clinical Experiences and Mechanism of Action with the Use of Oxytocin Injection at Parturition in Domestic Animals: Effect on the Myometrium and Fetuses.

Oxytocin is a key hormone for parturition and maternal traits in animals. During the peripartum period, the levels of endogenous oxytocin dictate physiological events such as myometrial contractions, prostaglandin production with the subsequent increase in oxytocin receptors, and the promotion of lactation when administered immediately after birth. While this hormone has some benefits regarding these aspects, the exogenous administration of oxytocin has been shown to have detrimental effects on the fetus, such as asphyxia, meconium staining, ruptured umbilical cords, and more dystocia cases in females. This review aims to analyze the main effects of oxytocin on myometrial activity during parturition, and its potential favorable and negative administration effects reflected in the fetus health of domestic animals. In conclusion, it is convenient to know oxytocin's different effects as well as the adequate doses and the proper moment to administrate it, as it can reduce labor duration, but it can also increase dystocia.

Rider Variables Affecting the Stirrup Directional Force Asymmetry during Simulated Riding Trot.

Riders' asymmetry may cause back pain in both human and equine athletes. This pilot study aimed at documenting in a simple and quick way asymmetry in riders during a simulation of three different riding positions on wooden horseback using load cells applied on the stirrup leathers and identifying possible associations between riders' asymmetry and their gender, age, level of riding ability, years of riding experience, riding style, motivation of riding, primary discipline and handedness. After completing an interview to obtain the previously mentioned information, 147 riders performed a standardized test on a saddle fixed on a wooden horseback-shaped model. The riding simulation was split into three phases of 1 min each: (1) sit in the saddle, (2) standing in the stirrups and (3) rising trot. The directional force on the left and the right stirrup leathers was recorded every 0.2 s. A paired t-test was performed on the recorded data to test the difference (i.e., asymmetry) in each phase. In phases 1, 2 and 3, 99.3% (53.4% heavier on the right (R)), 98% (52.8% heavier on the left (L)) and 46.3% (51.5% heavier on the left (L)) of the riders were asymmetrical, respectively. Chi-square tests showed a significant association between riding ability and riding experience, but no significant association between reported handedness and calculated leg-sidedness (p > 0.05). Univariate logistic (1: asymmetry, 0: symmetry) regression analysis was performed only on the phase 3 data. One-hand riders were found twice more likely to be asymmetrical than two-hand riders (Odds Ratio (OR): 2.18, Confidence Interval (CI): 1.1−4.29; p = 0.024). This preliminary study confirmed that the majority of the riders are asymmetrical in load distribution on stirrups and suggested the riding style as a possible risk factor for asymmetry.

Is the Weight of the Newborn Puppy Related to Its Thermal Balance?

Hypothermia, a factor associated with neonatal mortality, can occur immediately after birth as a protective mechanism to prevent hypoxic damage in neonates, or to reduce the metabolic rate to improve the chances of survival in the first hours of life. The heat interchange through the superficial temperature of animals can be evaluated with infrared thermography (IRT). However, to date, there is no information on thermal windows in puppies. This study aimed to evaluate, with the use of IRT, the microcirculatory alterations in 8 different thermal windows identified at 7 different times in 289 newborn puppies assigned to different groups. Three thermograms were taken from four zones of each puppy: the facial, frontal, right lateral, and left lateral regions. Newborn puppies were grouped in 4 quartiles according to their weight: Q1 (126−226 g) n = 73, Q2 (227−330 g) n = 72, Q3 (331−387 g) n = 74, and Q4 (388−452 g) n = 70. A total of 8 thermal windows were considered at 7 evaluation times from Wet at birth until 24 h after birth (AB). Two-way mixed ANOVA within and between subjects' design for each thermal window (eight models) was performed. Results revealed a positive correlation between the puppy's weight and its ability to achieve thermostability in all the evaluated thermal windows. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.0001) between the 4 quartiles (Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4) were found. The lowest temperatures were recorded when the pups were still wet and the highest at 24 h AB. Thermal windows with the highest temperatures were abdominal (34.234 ± 0.056 °C), thoracic (33.705 ± 0.049 °C), nasal (30.671 ± 0.110 °C), and upper left palpebral (34.066 ± 0.052 °C), while the lowest were thoracic limb brachial biceps (27.534 ± 0.051 °C), thoracic limb elbow (27.141 ± 0.049 °C), thoracic limb metacarpal (27.024 ± 0.062 °C), and femoral pelvic limb (27.654 ± 0.055 °C). Assessing the thermal response in newborn puppies can help identify drastic temperature reductions or deficient thermoregulatory compensation during the first hours of life, preventing the consequences of hypothermia.

Impact of Variability Factors on Hair Cortisol, Blood Count and Milk Production of Donkeys.

The increased interest in donkeys because of their milk has led to changes in their farm management. Little is known about the effect of the farming systems on donkey health and welfare. Measuring hair cortisol concentrations is an emerging method to assess stress in animals. To the best of our knowledge, no cortisol assessment has been done on dairy donkeys; similarly, only a few studies have investigated donkey haematological values. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of the lactation phase, parity and season on blood parameters, milk yield and quality and hair cortisol in dairy donkeys. Individual samples of milk, blood and mane hair were taken from twenty jennies at 1, 6 and 10 months after parturition. Higher values of hair cortisol were found in the first sampling, suggesting temporary stress during the peri-parturition. The parity influenced the number of blood cells, which was lower in the pluriparous jennies. The season affected milk quality and mean corpuscular haemoglobin and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration. The latters might represent the adaptation to the environmental conditions. This study contributes to a better understanding of the biochemical processes occurring in lactating jennies, and to their physiological and wellbeing status.

Physiological Indicators of Acute and Chronic Stress in Securely and Insecurely Attached Dogs Undergoing a Strange Situation Procedure (SSP): Preliminary Results.

The quality of the attachment bond towards the caregiver may affect the dog's physiological responses to stressful stimuli. This study aimed to measure chronic and acute physiological parameters of stress in ten securely and ten insecurely attached dogs. The twenty experimental subjects were selected from a sample of dogs that participated with their owners in the Strange Situation Procedure. Saliva samples were collected before (T0) and after (T1) the test. Blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature were measured after the test, only. At this time, a hair sample was also collected. RM ANOVA was used to analyse cortisol concentrations between secure and insecure dogs at T0 and T1. Mann-Whitney U test or T test were used for other physiological parameters. Insecure dogs had significant higher salivary cortisol concentrations than secure dogs at T1 (p = 0.024), but only a non-significant trend towards higher cortisol concentrations at T0 (p = 0.099). Post-test heart rate also tended to be higher in insecure compared to secure dogs (p = 0.077). No significant differences in hair cortisol concentration were found. The quality of attachment may affect the dog's physiological response to acute stress, at least when related to separation from the caregiver. The effect of attachment on chronic stress requires further investigation.

The Welfare of Fighting Dogs: Wounds, Neurobiology of Pain, Legal Aspects and the Potential Role of the Veterinary Profession.

Throughout history it has been common to practice activities which significantly impact on animal welfare. Animal fighting, including dogfighting, is a prime example where animals often require veterinary care, either to treat wounds and fractures or to manage pain associated with tissue and where death may even result. Amongst the detrimental health effects arising are the sensory alterations that these injuries cause, which not only include acute or chronic pain but can also trigger a greater sensitivity to other harmful (hyperalgesia) or even innocuous stimuli (allodynia). These neurobiological aspects are often ignored and the erroneous assumption made that the breeds engaged in organized fighting have a high pain threshold or, at least, they present reduced or delayed responses to painful stimuli. However, it is now widely recognized that the damage these dogs suffer is not only physical but psychological, emotional, and sensory. Due to the impact fighting has on canine welfare, it is necessary to propose solution strategies, especially educational ones, i.e., educating people and training veterinarians, the latter potentially playing a key role in alerting people to all dog welfare issues. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe the risk factors associated with dogfighting generally (dog temperament, age, sex, nutrition, testosterone levels, environment, isolation conditions, socialization, education, or training). A neurobiological approach to this topic is taken to discuss the impact on dog pain and emotion. Finally, a general discussion of the format of guidelines and laws that seek to sanction them is presented. The role that veterinarians can play in advancing dog welfare, rehabilitating dogs, and educating the public is also considered.

Cat-Owner Relationship and Cat Behaviour: Effects of the COVID-19 Confinement and Implications for Feline Management.

The restrictive measures implemented to stem the spread of COVID-19 abruptly changed the lives of many cats and their owners. This study explored whether the lockdown in Italy affected the cat-owner relationship, as well as cat behaviour and welfare. A survey that included questions on owner and cat's demographics, living environment, cat behaviour and a modified version of the Cat/Dog Relationship Scale (C/DORS) was distributed online during the lockdown and was completed by 548 cat owners, mainly women (81.6%). With regard to the C/DORS subscales, both emotional closeness and cat-owner interactions increased during confinement, as opposed to a reduction in perceived costs. The effect of the type of job, family role and owner's age on the C/DORS scores suggests that the relationship improved for those owners that, due to the lockdown, increased the time spent with their cats. For 58.8% of respondents, their cat's general behaviour did not change, but when changes occurred, they were mostly positive (20.4%). Attention-seeking and demanding behaviours were the most increased during lockdown (25.7%). Cats with pre-existing problematic behaviours tended to either remain stable or improve during confinement. The overall positive effects of lockdown-related environmental changes on a cat's behaviour suggest that some aspects of commonly implemented cat management practices should be revised to improve cat welfare in normal circumstances.

Early Blood Analysis and Gas Exchange Monitoring in the Canine Neonate: Effect of Dam's Size and Birth Order.

In canines, size at birth is determined by the dam's weight, which would probably affect the newborn's viability due to litter size and birth order. Fetal hypoxia causes distress and acidemia. Identifying physiological blood alterations in the puppy during the first minute of life through the blood gas exchange of the umbilical cord could determine the puppy's risk of suffering asphyxiation during labor. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the birth order and dam's size during spontaneous labor and the alterations during the first minute of life. The results indicate that the dam's size and the birth order have considerable physiological and metabolic effects in the puppies, mainly in birth order 1 (BO1) in small-size dogs, while in the medium size, the last puppy presented more alterations, probably because of a prolonged whelping which could have fostered hypoxic processes and death. Likewise, with large-size dogs, intrapartum asphyxiation processes were registered during the first minute of life in any birth order.

The Cat-Owner Relationship: Validation of the Italian C/DORS for Cat Owners and Correlation with the LAPS.

Globally, most people now own a pet. Scales have been developed to understand the impact of pet ownership on people's lives and to measure specific aspects of the owner-pet relationship. The Cat-/Dog-Owner Relationship Scale (C/DORS) is a tool developed to investigate this relationship in both dog and cat owners. The aim of the study was to refine and validate the C/DORS for cat owners in Italian. Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were used to determine the most appropriate factor model. Construct validity was confirmed by correlating the C/DORS subscales with the Lexington Attachment to Pets (LAPS) subscales. Results confirmed the original structure of the English version (i.e., three factors: Pet Owner Interaction = POI, Perceived Emotional Closeness = PEC, Perceived Costs = PC) and CFA confirmed the structure of LAPS and C/DORS scales. Cronbach's alpha demonstrated the Italian version of the two scales to have good internal reliability for all domains. Owners of cats living exclusively indoors reported higher scores on POI and PEC compared to indoor/outdoor cats. Owning both cats and dogs was correlated with lower scores on POI, and fewer perceived costs (i.e., PC) of cat ownership. Finally, behaviour problems, not being neutered, and lack of previous experience with cat ownership were associated with lower scores on PC.

Development of the Dog Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory (D-AISI): A Pilot Study on a Sample of Female Owners.

To date, the Strange Situation Procedure is the only tool available to investigate the quality of the dog's attachment bond towards the owner. This study aimed to adapt a parent-report scale, named the Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory (AISI) 6-12, originally designed to assess 6- to 12-year-old children's attachment insecurity, to dog-owner dyads and assess measures of consistency and validity. The online questionnaire was completed by 524 female dog owners. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed five components named, respectively, "physical contact", "control", "separation anxiety", "owner as emotional support", and "owner as a source of positive emotion". Because of the three-factor structure of the original AISI, a PCA with a pre-fixed set of three factors was also performed. The resulting subscales mirrored the ones found for the original scale (i.e., ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized), although four items did not fit the model. Internal reliability appeared to be satisfying for the ambivalent and the disorganized subscales, and good for the avoidant subscale. The theoretical background and the results of this study suggest that the three-dimensional model represents a better solution for the interpretation of the Dog Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory (D-AISI). Although promising, this scale requires refinement and assessment of additional validity measures.

Anthropomorphism and Its Adverse Effects on the Distress and Welfare of Companion Animals.

Anthropomorphic practices are increasing worldwide. Anthropomorphism is defined as the tendency to attribute human forms, behaviors, and emotions to non-human animals or objects. Anthropomorphism is particularly relevant for companion animals. Some anthropomorphic practices can be beneficial to them, whilst others can be very detrimental. Some anthropomorphic behaviors compromise the welfare and physiology of animals by interfering with thermoregulation, while others can produce dehydration due to the loss of body water, a condition that brings undesirable consequences such as high compensatory blood pressure and heat shock, even death, depending on the intensity and frequency of an animal's exposure to these stressors. Malnutrition is a factor observed due to consumption of junk food or an imbalance in caloric proportions. This can cause obesity in pets that may have repercussions on their locomotor apparatus. Intense human-animal interaction can also lead to the establishment of attachment that impacts the mental state and behavior of animals, making them prone to develop aggression, fear, or anxiety separation syndrome. Another aspect is applying cosmetics to pets, though scientific studies have not yet determined whether cosmetic products such as coat dyes, nail polish, and lotions are beneficial or harmful for the animals, or to what extent. The cohabitation of animals in people's homes can also constitute a public health risk due to infectious and zoonotic diseases. In this context, this paper aims to analyze the adverse effects of anthropomorphism on the welfare of companion animals from several angles-physiological, sanitary, and behavioral-based on a discussion of current scientific findings.

Current Advances in Assessment of Dog's Emotions, Facial Expressions, and Their Use for Clinical Recognition of Pain.

Animals' facial expressions are involuntary responses that serve to communicate the emotions that individuals feel. Due to their close co-existence with humans, broad attention has been given to identifying these expressions in certain species, especially dogs. This review aims to analyze and discuss the advances in identifying the facial expressions of domestic dogs and their clinical utility in recognizing pain as a method to improve daily practice and, in an accessible and effective way, assess the health outcome of dogs. This study focuses on aspects related to the anatomy and physiology of facial expressions in dogs, their emotions, and evaluations of their eyebrows, eyes, lips, and ear positions as changes that reflect pain or nociception. In this regard, research has found that dogs have anatomical configurations that allow them to generate changes in their expressions that similar canids-wolves, for example-cannot produce. Additionally, dogs can perceive emotions similar to those of their human tutors due to close human-animal interaction. This phenomenon-called "emotional contagion"-is triggered precisely by the dog's capacity to identify their owners' gestures and then react by emitting responses with either similar or opposed expressions that correspond to positive or negative stimuli, respectively. In conclusion, facial expressions are essential to maintaining social interaction between dogs and other species, as in their bond with humans. Moreover, this provides valuable information on emotions and the perception of pain, so in dogs, they can serve as valuable elements for recognizing and evaluating pain in clinical settings.

Oxytocin Receptor Gene Polymorphism in Lactating Dogs.

Genetic variations in the oxytocinergic system, known to regulate social behavior throughout the evolution of mammals, are believed to account for differences in mammalian social behavior. Particularly, polymorphic variants of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene have been associated with behavioral variations in both humans and dogs. In this study, we offered evidence of the correlation between levels of salivary oxytocin (sOXT), maternal behavior and a single-nucleotide gene variant in OXTR (rs8679684) in nineteen lactating Labrador Retriever dogs. Carriers of at least one copy of the minor A allele showed higher levels of sOXT and maternal care in comparison with the homozygous T allele carriers. Considering the relevance of mother care in newborn development, these findings could help us to better understand the possible impact of variants in the OXTR gene in selecting dams.

The Impact of Chronic Inflammatory Enteropathy on Dogs' Quality of Life and Dog-Owner Relationship.

This research was aimed at evaluating the impact of canine chronic enteropathies on dogs' quality of life (QoL), their behavior, and owner-dog relationship. Forty-four dogs suffering from primary chronic enteropathies were assessed on the first visit with a veterinary gastroenterologist and on the first follow-up visit using a 1-10 visual scale to evaluate five features of QoL, the Canine Chronic Enteropathy Clinical Activity Index, the Lexington Attachment to Pet Scale, and the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire. They were compared to a control group of 49 healthy dogs and to a group of 50 dogs suffering from cancer. QoL and severity of enteropathy were negatively associated; enteropathic dogs on the first visit had a lower QoL than healthy dogs for all features and a lower general QoL than cancer patients; enteropathic dogs on the follow-up visit improved significantly for general QoL, health QoL, and interaction QoL. Higher levels of attachment between the owner and the dog were obtained for dogs affected by chronic enteropathies. Finally, dogs showed higher scores for separation-related behaviors and contact/attention behaviors on the first visit than on the subsequent follow-up. As in human medicine, chronic enteropathies have a strong negative impact on dogs.

The Dog-Owner Relationship: Refinement and Validation of the Italian C/DORS for Dog Owners and Correlation with the LAPS.

The Cat/Dog-Owner Relationship Scale (C/DORS) can be administered to both dog and cat owners. However, the scale as a whole has never been validated on a sample of dog owners. Furthermore, it has never been translated into Italian. The aim of this study was to translate the C/DORS into Italian, modify its response scale in order to improve the degree of response variability, and test its validity and reliability on a sample of dog-owners. Exploratory factor analysis revealed the same three-factor structure (Perceived Emotional Closeness = PEC, Pet-Owner Interactions = POI, Perceived Costs = PC) as the original English version, although some items had to be removed because of low- or cross-loadings. The validity of the construct was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis, by the correlations between each of the subscales and the C/DORS total score, and by the correlations with the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale. Cronbach's α values for each subscale were above acceptable levels. Student owners scored higher on PEC and POI than owners with other occupations. Owners of dogs with behavioural problems scored lower on PEC and higher on PC. Keeping the dog outdoor was associated with lower POI. Finally, pet dog owners scored higher on PEC than AAI dog owners.

Overweight in Domestic Cats Living in Urban Areas of Italy: Risk Factors for an Emerging Welfare Issue.

Overweight is common in cats and has health and welfare implications. This study aimed to assess potential predictive/protective factors for feline overweight associated with owner management and their relationship with cat behavior and welfare. A questionnaire was administered to 197 owners to collect information about cat demographics, management, environment, dietary habits and behavior. The feline Body Mass Index was recorded for each cat. Univariate logistic regression was used to evaluate the association of parameters with overweight cats. Variables with a p-value < 0.10 at univariable analyses were selected for the multivariable model. Most cats were mixed- breed, 1-7 years old and neutered; 51.3% were overweight. Age higher than 7 years, neutering, being alone all day and being stressed were predictive for overweight (p < 0.05). Conversely, the presence of other animals had a protective effect (p < 0.05). A general disagreement between owners' perception and clinical evaluation of cats' body condition was a common and significant risk factor for overweight (OR = 8.532, 95% CI = 4.073-17.875; p < 0.001). According to the owners, many veterinarians did not inform them about their cat being overweight nor about the risks (p < 0.001). This study provides helpful information on the influence of management and environment on cats' body condition and its relationship with cat welfare.

Blood Biomarker Profile Alterations in Newborn Canines: Effect of the Mother's Weight.

This study aims to determine the effect of the weight of bitches on liveborn and stillbirth puppies from eutocic births, and physiological blood alterations during the first minute postpartum. A total of 52 female dogs were evaluated and distributed in four categories: C1 (4.0-8.0 kg, n = 19), C2 (8.1-16.0 kg, n = 16), C3 (16.1-32.0 kg, n = 11), and C4 (32.1-35.8 kg, n = 6). The dams produced 225 liveborn puppies and 47 were classified as stillbirth type II. Blood samples were taken from the umbilical vein to evaluate the concentration of gases, glucose, lactate, calcium, hematocrit levels, and blood pH. The liveborn puppies in C2, C3, and C4 had more evident physiological alterations (hypercapnia, acidosis) than those in C1 (p < 0.05). These signs indicate a process of transitory asphyxiation. The stillborn pups in all four categories had higher weights than their liveborn littermates. C3 and C4 had the highest mean weights (419.86 and 433.79 g, respectively) and mortality rates (C3 = 20.58%, C4 = 24.58%). Results suggest that if the weight of the bitch is >16.1 kg in eutocic births, there is a higher risk of intrapartum physiological alterations and death. The results of this study allowed us to identify that the weight of dams before birth determines the weight of the puppies at birth.