A Fully-Automated Senescence Test (FAST) for the high-throughput quantification of senescence-associated markers.

Cellular senescence is a major driver of aging and age-related diseases. Quantification of senescent cells remains challenging due to the lack of senescence-specific markers and generalist, unbiased methodology. Here, we describe the Fully-Automated Senescence Test (FAST), an image-based method for the high-throughput, single-cell assessment of senescence in cultured cells. FAST quantifies three of the most widely adopted senescence-associated markers for each cell imaged: senescence-associated ß-galactosidase activity (SA-ß-Gal) using X-Gal, proliferation arrest via lack of 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation, and enlarged morphology via increased nuclear area. The presented workflow entails microplate image acquisition, image processing, data analysis, and graphing. Standardization was achieved by i) quantifying colorimetric SA-ß-Gal via optical density; ii) implementing staining background controls; iii) automating image acquisition, image processing, and data analysis. In addition to the automated threshold-based scoring, a multivariate machine learning approach is provided. We show that FAST accurately quantifies senescence burden and is agnostic to cell type and microscope setup. Moreover, it effectively mitigates false-positive senescence marker staining, a common issue arising from culturing conditions. Using FAST, we compared X-Gal with fluorescent C12FDG live-cell SA-ß-Gal staining on the single-cell level. We observed only a modest correlation between the two, indicating that those stains are not trivially interchangeable. Finally, we provide proof of concept that our method is suitable for screening compounds that modify senescence burden. This method will be broadly useful to the aging field by enabling rapid, unbiased, and user-friendly quantification of senescence burden in culture, as well as facilitating large-scale experiments that were previously impractical.

OXR1 maintains the retromer to delay brain aging under dietary restriction.

Dietary restriction (DR) delays aging, but the mechanism remains unclear. We identified polymorphisms in mtd, the fly homolog of OXR1, which influenced lifespan and mtd expression in response to DR. Knockdown in adulthood inhibited DR-mediated lifespan extension in female flies. We found that mtd/OXR1 expression declines with age and it interacts with the retromer, which regulates trafficking of proteins and lipids. Loss of mtd/OXR1 destabilized the retromer, causing improper protein trafficking and endolysosomal defects. Overexpression of retromer genes or pharmacological restabilization with R55 rescued lifespan and neurodegeneration in mtd-deficient flies and endolysosomal defects in fibroblasts from patients with lethal loss-of-function of OXR1 variants. Multi-omic analyses in flies and humans showed that decreased Mtd/OXR1 is associated with aging and neurological diseases. mtd/OXR1 overexpression rescued age-related visual decline and tauopathy in a fly model. Hence, OXR1 plays a conserved role in preserving retromer function and is critical for neuronal health and longevity.

Proteomic analysis of X-linked dystonia parkinsonism disease striatal neurons reveals altered RNA metabolism and splicing.

X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism (XDP) is a rare neurodegenerative disease endemic to the Philippines. The genetic cause for XDP is an insertion of a SINE-VNTR-Alu (SVA)-type retrotransposon within intron 32 of TATA-binding protein associated factor 1 (TAF1) that causes an alteration of TAF1 splicing, partial intron retention, and decreased transcription. Although TAF1 is expressed in all organs, medium spiny neurons (MSNs) within the striatum are one of the cell types most affected in XDP. To define how mutations in the TAF1 gene lead to MSN vulnerability, we carried out a proteomic analysis of human XDP patient-derived neural stem cells (NSCs) and MSNs derived from induced pluripotent stem cells. NSCs and MSNs were grown in parallel and subjected to quantitative proteomic analysis in data-independent acquisition mode on the Orbitrap Eclipse Tribrid mass spectrometer. Subsequent functional enrichment analysis demonstrated that neurodegenerative disease-related pathways, such as Huntington's disease, spinocerebellar ataxia, cellular senescence, mitochondrial function and RNA binding metabolism, were highly represented. We used weighted coexpression network analysis (WGCNA) of the NSC and MSN proteomic data set to uncover disease-driving network modules. Three of the modules significantly correlated with XDP genotype when compared to the non-affected control and were enriched for DNA helicase and nuclear chromatin assembly, mitochondrial disassembly, RNA location and mRNA processing. Consistent with aberrant mRNA processing, we found splicing and intron retention of TAF1 intron 32 in XDP MSN. We also identified TAF1 as one of the top enriched transcription factors, along with YY1, ATF2, USF1 and MYC. Notably, YY1 has been implicated in genetic forms of dystonia. Overall, our proteomic data set constitutes a valuable resource to understand mechanisms relevant to TAF1 dysregulation and to identify new therapeutic targets for XDP.

Spatial mapping of cellular senescence: emerging challenges and opportunities.

Cellular senescence is a well-established driver of aging and age-related diseases. There are many challenges to mapping senescent cells in tissues such as the absence of specific markers and their relatively low abundance and vast heterogeneity. Single-cell technologies have allowed unprecedented characterization of senescence; however, many methodologies fail to provide spatial insights. The spatial component is essential, as senescent cells communicate with neighboring cells, impacting their function and the composition of extracellular space. The Cellular Senescence Network (SenNet), a National Institutes of Health (NIH) Common Fund initiative, aims to map senescent cells across the lifespan of humans and mice. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the existing and emerging methodologies for spatial imaging and their application toward mapping senescent cells. Moreover, we discuss the limitations and challenges inherent to each technology. We argue that the development of spatially resolved methods is essential toward the goal of attaining an atlas of senescent cells.

Site IQ in mitochondrial complex I generates S1QEL-sensitive superoxide/hydrogen peroxide in both the reverse and forward reactions.

Superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production by site IQ in complex I of the electron transport chain is conventionally assayed during reverse electron transport (RET) from ubiquinol to NAD. However, S1QELs (specific suppressors of superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production by site IQ) have potent effects in cells and in vivo during presumed forward electron transport (FET). Therefore, we tested whether site IQ generates S1QEL-sensitive superoxide/hydrogen peroxide during FET (site IQf), or alternatively, whether RET and associated S1QEL-sensitive superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production (site IQr) occurs in cells under normal conditions. We introduce an assay to determine if electron flow through complex I is thermodynamically forward or reverse: on blocking electron flow through complex I, the endogenous matrix NAD pool will become more reduced if flow before the challenge was forward, but more oxidised if flow was reverse. Using this assay we show in the model system of isolated rat skeletal muscle mitochondria that superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production by site IQ can be equally great whether RET or FET is running. We show that sites IQr and IQf are equally sensitive to S1QELs, and to rotenone and piericidin A, inhibitors that block the Q-site of complex I. We exclude the possibility that some sub-fraction of the mitochondrial population running site IQr during FET is responsible for S1QEL-sensitive superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production by site IQ. Finally, we show that superoxide/hydrogen peroxide production by site IQ in cells occurs during FET, and is S1QEL-sensitive.

Proteomic Analysis of Huntington's Disease Medium Spiny Neurons Identifies Alterations in Lipid Droplets.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the Huntingtin (HTT) gene. The resulting polyglutamine (polyQ) tract alters the function of the HTT protein. Although HTT is expressed in different tissues, the medium-spiny projection neurons (MSNs) in the striatum are particularly vulnerable in HD. Thus, we sought to define the proteome of human HD patient-derived MSNs. We differentiated HD72-induced pluripotent stem cells and isogenic controls into MSNs and carried out quantitative proteomic analysis. Using data-dependent acquisitions with FAIMS for label-free quantification on the Orbitrap Lumos mass spectrometer, we identified 6323 proteins with at least two unique peptides. Of these, 901 proteins were altered significantly more in the HD72-MSNs than in isogenic controls. Functional enrichment analysis of upregulated proteins demonstrated extracellular matrix and DNA signaling (DNA replication pathway, double-strand break repair, G1/S transition) with the highest significance. Conversely, processes associated with the downregulated proteins included neurogenesis-axogenesis, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor-signaling pathway, Ephrin-A:EphA pathway, regulation of synaptic plasticity, triglyceride homeostasis cholesterol, plasmid lipoprotein particle immune response, interferon-γ signaling, immune system major histocompatibility complex, lipid metabolism, and cellular response to stimulus. Moreover, proteins involved in the formation and maintenance of axons, dendrites, and synapses (e.g., septin protein members) were dysregulated in HD72-MSNs. Importantly, lipid metabolism pathways were altered, and using quantitative image analysis, we found that lipid droplets accumulated in the HD72-MSN, suggesting a deficit in the turnover of lipids possibly through lipophagy. Our proteomics analysis of HD72-MSNs identified relevant pathways that are altered in MSNs and confirm current and new therapeutic targets for HD.

Postnatal Conditional Deletion of Bcl11b in Striatal Projection Neurons Mimics the Transcriptional Signature of Huntington's Disease.

The dysregulation of striatal gene expression and function is linked to multiple diseases, including Huntington's disease (HD), Parkinson's disease, X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism (XDP), addiction, autism, and schizophrenia. Striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) make up 90% of the neurons in the striatum and are critical to motor control. The transcription factor, Bcl11b (also known as Ctip2), is required for striatal development, but the function of Bcl11b in adult MSNs in vivo has not been investigated. We conditionally deleted Bcl11b specifically in postnatal MSNs and performed a transcriptomic and behavioral analysis on these mice. Multiple enrichment analyses showed that the D9-Cre-Bcl11btm1.1Leid transcriptional profile was similar to the HD gene expression in mouse and human data sets. A Gene Ontology enrichment analysis linked D9-Cre-Bcl11btm1.1Leid to calcium, synapse organization, specifically including the dopaminergic synapse, protein dephosphorylation, and HDAC-signaling, commonly dysregulated pathways in HD. D9-Cre-Bcl11btm1.1Leid mice had decreased DARPP-32/Ppp1r1b in MSNs and behavioral deficits, demonstrating the dysregulation of a subtype of the dopamine D2 receptor expressing MSNs. Finally, in human HD isogenic MSNs, the mislocalization of BCL11B into nuclear aggregates points to a mechanism for BCL11B loss of function in HD. Our results suggest that BCL11B is important for the function and maintenance of mature MSNs and Bcl11b loss of function drives, in part, the transcriptomic and functional changes in HD.

Unbiased Millivolts Assay of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential in Intact Cells.

The mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔψM) is the major component of the bioenergetic driving force responsible for most cellular ATP produced, and it controls a host of biological processes. In intact cells, assay readouts with commonly used fluorescence ΔψM probes are distorted by factors other than ΔψM. Here, we describe a protocol to calculate both ΔψM and plasma membrane potential (ΔψP) in absolute millivolts in intact single cells, or in populations of adherent, cultured cells. Our approach generates unbiased data that allows comparison of ΔψM between cell types with different geometry and ΔψP, and to follow ΔψM in time when ΔψP fluctuates. The experimental paradigm results in fluorescence microscopy time courses using a pair of cationic and anionic probes with internal calibration points that are subsequently computationally converted to millivolts on an absolute scale. The assay is compatible with wide field, confocal or two-photon microscopy. The method given here is optimized for a multiplexed, partial 96-well microplate format to record ΔψP and ΔψM responses for three consecutive treatment additions.

Effects of sugars, fatty acids and amino acids on cytosolic and mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide release from liver cells.

The rates of formation of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide at different electron-donating sites in isolated mitochondria are critically dependent on the substrates that are added, through their effects on the reduction level of each site and the components of the protonmotive force. However, in intact cells the acute effects of added substrates on different sites of cytosolic and mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide production are unclear. Here we tested the effects of substrate addition on cytosolic and mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide release from intact AML12 liver cells. In 30-min starved cells replete with endogenous substrates, addition of glucose, fructose, palmitate, alanine, leucine or glutamine had no effect on the rate or origin of cellular hydrogen peroxide release. However, following 150-min starvation of the cells to deplete endogenous glycogen (and other substrates), cellular hydrogen peroxide production, particularly from NADPH oxidases (NOXs), was decreased, GSH/GSSH ratio increased, and antioxidant gene expression was unchanged. Addition of glucose or glutamine (but not the other substrates) increased hydrogen peroxide release. There were similar relative increases from each of the three major sites of production: mitochondrial sites IQ and IIIQo, and cytosolic NOXs. Glucose supplementation also restored ATP production and mitochondrial NAD reduction level, suggesting that the increased rates of hydrogen peroxide release from the mitochondrial sites were driven by increases in the protonmotive force and the degree of reduction of the electron transport chain. Long-term (24 h) glucose or glutamine deprivation also diminished hydrogen peroxide release rate, ATP production rate and (for glucose deprivation) NAD reduction level. We conclude that the rates of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production from mitochondrial sites in liver cells are insensitive to extra added substrates when endogenous substrates are not depleted, but these rates are decreased when endogenous substrates are lowered by 150 min of starvation, and can be enhanced by restoring glucose or glutamine supply through improvements in mitochondrial energetic state.

Controlled power: how biology manages succinate-driven energy release.

Oxidation of succinate by mitochondria can generate a higher protonmotive force (pmf) than can oxidation of NADH-linked substrates. Fundamentally, this is because of differences in redox potentials and gearing. Biology adds kinetic constraints that tune the oxidation of NADH and succinate to ensure that the resulting mitochondrial pmf is suitable for meeting cellular needs without triggering pathology. Tuning within an optimal range is used, for example, to shift ATP consumption between different consumers. Conditions that overcome these constraints and allow succinate oxidation to drive pmf too high can cause pathological generation of reactive oxygen species. We discuss the thermodynamic properties that allow succinate oxidation to drive pmf higher than NADH oxidation, and discuss the evidence for kinetic tuning of ATP production and for pathologies resulting from substantial succinate oxidation in vivo.

Superoxide produced by mitochondrial site IQ inactivates cardiac succinate dehydrogenase and induces hepatic steatosis in Sod2 knockout mice.

Superoxide produced by mitochondria has been implicated in numerous physiologies and pathologies. Eleven different mitochondrial sites that can produce superoxide and/or hydrogen peroxide (O2.-/H2O2) have been identified in vitro, but little is known about their contributions in vivo. We introduce novel variants of S1QELs and S3QELs (small molecules that suppress O2.-/H2O2 production specifically from mitochondrial sites IQ and IIIQo, respectively, without compromising bioenergetics), that are suitable for use in vivo. When administered by intraperitoneal injection, they achieve total tissue concentrations exceeding those that are effective in vitro. We use them to study the engagement of sites IQ and IIIQo in mice lacking functional manganese-superoxide dismutase (SOD2). Lack of SOD2 is expected to elevate superoxide levels in the mitochondrial matrix, and leads to severe pathologies and death about 8 days after birth. Compared to littermate wild-type mice, 6-day-old Sod2-/- mice had significantly lower body weight, lower heart succinate dehydrogenase activity, and greater hepatic lipid accumulation. These pathologies were ameliorated by treatment with a SOD/catalase mimetic, EUK189, confirming previous observations. A 3-day treatment with S1QEL352 decreased the inactivation of cardiac succinate dehydrogenase and hepatic steatosis in Sod2-/- mice. S1QEL712, which has a distinct chemical structure, also decreased hepatic steatosis, confirming that O2.- derived specifically from mitochondrial site IQ is a significant driver of hepatic steatosis in Sod2-/- mice. These findings also demonstrate the ability of these new S1QELs to suppress O2.- production in the mitochondrial matrix in vivo. In contrast, suppressing site IIIQo using S3QEL941 did not protect, suggesting that site IIIQo does not contribute significantly to mitochondrial O2.- production in the hearts or livers of Sod2-/- mice. We conclude that the novel S1QELs are effective in vivo, and that site IQ runs in vivo and is a significant driver of pathology in Sod2-/- mice.

Quantitative analysis of mitochondrial membrane potential heterogeneity in unsynchronized and synchronized cancer cells.

Mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) is a global indicator of mitochondrial function. Previous reports on heterogeneity of ΔΨm were qualitative or semiquantitative. Here, we quantified intercellular differences in ΔΨm in unsynchronized human cancer cells, cells synchronized in G1, S, and G2, and human fibroblasts. We assessed ΔΨm using a two-pronged microscopy approach to measure relative fluorescence of tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester (TMRM) and absolute values of ΔΨm. We showed that ΔΨm is more heterogeneous in cancer cells compared to fibroblasts, and it is maintained throughout the cell cycle. The effect of chemical inhibition of the respiratory chain and ATP synthesis differed between basal, low and high ΔΨm cells. Overall, our results showed that intercellular heterogeneity of ΔΨm is mainly modulated by intramitochondrial factors, it is independent of the ΔΨm indicator and it is not correlated with intercellular heterogeneity of plasma membrane potential or the phases of the cell cycle.

Total Cellular ATP Production Changes With Primary Substrate in MCF7 Breast Cancer Cells.

Cancer growth is predicted to require substantial rates of substrate catabolism and ATP turnover to drive unrestricted biosynthesis and cell growth. While substrate limitation can dramatically alter cell behavior, the effects of substrate limitation on total cellular ATP production rate is poorly understood. Here, we show that MCF7 breast cancer cells, given different combinations of the common cell culture substrates glucose, glutamine, and pyruvate, display ATP production rates 1.6-fold higher than when cells are limited to each individual substrate. This increase occurred mainly through faster oxidative ATP production, with little to no increase in glycolytic ATP production. In comparison, non-transformed C2C12 myoblast cells show no change in ATP production rate when substrates are limited. In MCF7 cells, glutamine allows unexpected access to oxidative capacity that pyruvate, also a strictly oxidized substrate, does not. Pyruvate, when added with other exogenous substrates, increases substrate-driven oxidative ATP production, by increasing both ATP supply and demand. Overall, we find that MCF7 cells are highly flexible with respect to maintaining total cellular ATP production under different substrate-limited conditions, over an acute (within minutes) timeframe that is unlikely to result from more protracted (hours or more) transcription-driven changes to metabolic enzyme expression. The near-identical ATP production rates maintained by MCF7 and C2C12 cells given single substrates reveal a potential difficulty in using substrate limitation to selectively starve cancer cells of ATP. In contrast, the higher ATP production rate conferred by mixed substrates in MCF7 cells remains a potentially exploitable difference.

The Mitochondrial Targets of Neuroprotective Drug Vinpocetine on Primary Neuron Cultures, Brain Capillary Endothelial Cells, Synaptosomes, and Brain Mitochondria.

Vinpocetine is considered as neuroprotectant drug and used for treatment of brain ischemia and cognitive deficiencies for decades. A number of enzymes, channels and receptors can bind vinpocetine, however the mechanisms of many effects' are still not clear. The present study investigated the effects of vinpocetine from the mitochondrial bioenergetic aspects. In primary brain capillary endothelial cells the purinergic receptor-stimulated mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and efflux were studied. Vinpocetine exerted a partial inhibition on the mitochondrial calcium efflux. In rodent brain synaptosomes vinpocetine (30 µM) inhibited respiration in uncoupler stimulated synaptosomes and decreased H2O2 release from the nerve terminals in resting and in complex I inhibited conditions, respectively. In isolated rat brain mitochondria using either complex I or complex II substrates leak respiration was stimulated, but ADP-induced respiration was inhibited by vinpocetine. The stimulation of oxidation was associated with a small extent of membrane depolarization. Mitochondrial H2O2 production was inhibited by vinpocetine under all conditions investigated. The most pronounced effects were detected with the complex II substrate succinate. Vinpocetine also mitigated both Ca2+-induced mitochondrial Ca2+-release and Ca2+-induced mitochondrial swelling. It lowered the rate of mitochondrial ATP synthesis, while increasing ATPase activity. These results indicate more than a single mitochondrial target of this vinca alkaloid. The relevance of the affected mitochondrial mechanisms in the anti ischemic effect of vinpocetine is discussed.

Natural Genetic Variation in Yeast Reveals That NEDD4 Is a Conserved Modifier of Mutant Polyglutamine Aggregation.

A feature common to late onset proteinopathic disorders is an accumulation of toxic protein conformers and aggregates in affected tissues. In the search for potential drug targets, many studies used high-throughput screens to find genes that modify the cytotoxicity of misfolded proteins. A complement to this approach is to focus on strategies that use protein aggregation as a phenotypic readout to identify pathways that control aggregate formation and maintenance. Here we use natural variation between strains of budding yeast to genetically map loci that influence the aggregation of a polyglutamine-containing protein derived from a mutant form of huntingtin, the causative agent in Huntington disease. Linkage analysis of progeny derived from a cross between wild and laboratory yeast strains revealed two polymorphic loci that modify polyglutamine aggregation. One locus contains the gene RFU1 which modifies ubiquitination states of misfolded proteins targeted by the E3-ubiquitin ligase complex Rsp5 Activity of the Rsp5 complex, and the mammalian homolog NEDD4, are critical in maintaining protein homeostasis in response to proteomic stress. Our analysis also showed linkage of the aggregation phenotype to a distinct locus containing a gene encoding the Rsp5-interacting Bul2 protein. Allele-swap experiments validated the impact of both RFU1 and BUL2 on huntingtin aggregation. Furthermore, we found that the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans' ortholog of Rsp5, wwp-1, also negatively regulates polyglutamine aggregation. Knockdown of the NEDD4 in human cells likewise altered polyglutamine aggregation. Taken together, these results implicate conserved processes involving the ubiquitin regulation network that modify protein aggregation and provide novel therapeutic targets for polyglutamine and other protein folding diseases.

Metabolic activation-driven mitochondrial hyperpolarization predicts insulin secretion in human pancreatic beta-cells.

Mitochondrial metabolism plays a central role in insulin secretion in pancreatic beta-cells. Generation of protonmotive force and ATP synthesis from glucose-originated pyruvate are critical steps in the canonical pathway of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Mitochondrial metabolism is intertwined with pathways that are thought to amplify insulin secretion with mechanisms distinct from the canonical pathway, and the relative importance of these two pathways is controversial. Here I show that glucose-induced mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) hyperpolarization is necessary for, and predicts, the rate of insulin secretion in primary cultured human beta-cells. When glucose concentration is elevated, increased metabolism results in a substantial MMP hyperpolarization, as well as in increased rates of ATP synthesis and turnover marked by faster cell respiration. Using modular kinetic analysis I explored what properties of cellular energy metabolism enable a large glucose-induced change in MMP in human beta-cells. I found that an ATP-dependent pathway activates glucose or substrate oxidation, acting as a positive feedback in energy metabolism. This activation mechanism is essential for concomitant fast respiration and high MMP, and for a high magnitude glucose-induced MMP hyperpolarization and therefore for insulin secretion.

Osteoblast-like MC3T3-E1 Cells Prefer Glycolysis for ATP Production but Adipocyte-like 3T3-L1 Cells Prefer Oxidative Phosphorylation.

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are early progenitors that can differentiate into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and adipocytes. We hypothesized that osteoblasts and adipocytes utilize distinct bioenergetic pathways during MSC differentiation. To test this hypothesis, we compared the bioenergetic profiles of preosteoblast MC3T3-E1 cells and calvarial osteoblasts with preadipocyte 3T3L1 cells, before and after differentiation. Differentiated MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts met adenosine triphosphate (ATP) demand mainly by glycolysis with minimal reserve glycolytic capacity, whereas nondifferentiated cells generated ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. A marked Crabtree effect (acute suppression of respiration by addition of glucose, observed in both MC3T3-E1 and calvarial osteoblasts) and smaller mitochondrial membrane potential in the differentiated osteoblasts, particularly those incubated at high glucose concentrations, indicated a suppression of oxidative phosphorylation compared with nondifferentiated osteoblasts. In contrast, both nondifferentiated and differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes met ATP demand primarily by oxidative phosphorylation despite a large unused reserve glycolytic capacity. In sum, we show that nondifferentiated precursor cells prefer to use oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP; when they differentiate to osteoblasts, they gain a strong preference for glycolytic ATP generation, but when they differentiate to adipocytes, they retain the strong preference for oxidative phosphorylation. Unique metabolic programming in mesenchymal progenitor cells may influence cell fate and ultimately determine the degree of bone formation and/or the development of marrow adiposity. © 2018 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

ROS Control Mitochondrial Motility through p38 and the Motor Adaptor Miro/Trak.

Mitochondrial distribution and motility are recognized as central to many cellular functions, but their regulation by signaling mechanisms remains to be elucidated. Here, we report that reactive oxygen species (ROS), either derived from an extracellular source or intracellularly generated, control mitochondrial distribution and function by dose-dependently, specifically, and reversibly decreasing mitochondrial motility in both rat hippocampal primary cultured neurons and cell lines. ROS decrease motility independently of cytoplasmic [Ca2+], mitochondrial membrane potential, or permeability transition pore opening, known effectors of oxidative stress. However, multiple lines of genetic and pharmacological evidence support that a ROS-activated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), p38α, is required for the motility inhibition. Furthermore, anchoring mitochondria directly to kinesins without involvement of the physiological adaptors between the organelles and the motor protein prevents the H2O2-induced decrease in mitochondrial motility. Thus, ROS engage p38α and the motor adaptor complex to exert changes in mitochondrial motility, which likely has both physiological and pathophysiological relevance.

Quantifying intracellular rates of glycolytic and oxidative ATP production and consumption using extracellular flux measurements.

Partitioning of ATP generation between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation is central to cellular bioenergetics but cumbersome to measure. We describe here how rates of ATP generation by each pathway can be calculated from simultaneous measurements of extracellular acidification and oxygen consumption. We update theoretical maximum ATP yields by mitochondria and cells catabolizing different substrates. Mitochondrial P/O ratios (mol of ATP generated per mol of [O] consumed) are 2.73 for oxidation of pyruvate plus malate and 1.64 for oxidation of succinate. Complete oxidation of glucose by cells yields up to 33.45 ATP/glucose with a maximum P/O of 2.79. We introduce novel indices to quantify bioenergetic phenotypes. The glycolytic index reports the proportion of ATP production from glycolysis and identifies cells as primarily glycolytic (glycolytic index > 50%) or primarily oxidative. The Warburg effect is a chronic increase in glycolytic index, quantified by the Warburg index. Additional indices quantify the acute flexibility of ATP supply. The Crabtree index and Pasteur index quantify the responses of oxidative and glycolytic ATP production to alterations in glycolysis and oxidative reactions, respectively; the supply flexibility index quantifies overall flexibility of ATP supply; and the bioenergetic capacity quantifies the maximum rate of total ATP production. We illustrate the determination of these indices using C2C12 myoblasts. Measurement of ATP use revealed no significant preference for glycolytic or oxidative ATP by specific ATP consumers. Overall, we demonstrate how extracellular fluxes quantitatively reflect intracellular ATP turnover and cellular bioenergetics. We provide a simple spreadsheet to calculate glycolytic and oxidative ATP production rates from raw extracellular acidification and respiration data.