Solar-driven surface-heating membrane distillation using Ti3C2Tx MXene-coated spacers.

The emergence of two-dimensional (2D) MXenes as efficient light-to-heat conversion materials offers significant potential for solar-based desalination, particularly in photothermal interfacial evaporation, enabling cost-effective solar-powered membrane distillation (MD). This study investigates solar-powered MD afforded by a photothermally functionalized spacer, which is built by spray-coating Ti3C2Tx MXene sheets on metallic spacers. 2D Ti3C2Tx MXene gives an ultrahigh photothermal conversion efficiency; thereby, by Ti3C2Tx MXene-coated metallic spacer, this rationally designed spacer allows for a localized photothermal conversion and interfacial feed heating effect on the membrane surface, especially for MD operation. As a feed spacer and a photothermal element, Ti3C2Tx MXene-coated metallic spacer exhibited stable enhanced water flux of up to 0.36 kg·m-2h-1 under one sun illumination for a feed salinity of 35 g·L-1, corresponding energy conversion efficiency of 28.3 %. Overall, the developed photothermal Ti3C2Tx MXene-coated spacers displayed great potential in enhancing the performance, scalability, and feasibility of solar-driven MD process, paving the way for further development of photothermal elements that can be implemented in solar MD applications.

Novel coiled hollow fiber module for high-performance membrane distillation.

Membrane distillation (MD) scale-up is challenged by ineffective heat recovery and the temperature polarization effect. Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) modules suffer high thermal conduction losses due to feed flow direction along the length of the membrane, resulting in low thermal efficiency. We propose a novel module design named coiled hollow fiber (CHF) to decouple the flow direction from the membrane surface in hollow fiber (HF) DCMD. Experimental and computational analyses were employed to compare the performance of CHF and the conventional design. The CHF module design successfully mitigates the TP effect in HF DCMD, increasing the flux by 148 % and 163 % in cross-flow and localized heating (LH) modes, respectively. Moreover, CHF operated in LH mode exhibits the lowest energy consumption of all configurations (81 % decrease) compared to the conventional design. This novel module design represents a new pathway for efficient and highly performing DCMD module.

Concept and analysis of hybrid reversal multi-stage flash and membrane distillation desalination system.

The concept and analysis of integrating membrane distillations (MD) with reversal once-through Multistage Flash (RV-MSF) desalination is presented. The analysis is based on numerical simulation. The MD vessels are integrated into the terminal ends of the RV-MSF system to leverage the thermal energy associated with these terminal streams. Hybridisation at the last MSF stage, i.e. by replacing the brine cooler, contributes marginally to the overall production rate which amounts to 2%. However, it is found that hybridisation at stage one, i.e. utilising the energy of the MSF reject brine can increase the overall production rate by 65%. For seawater feed temperature of 80 oC and 24 MSF stages, 5 MD vessels in series can be integrated with the RV-MSF process. This ultimate hybridisation helped improve the recovery ratio from 7 to 23%, decreasing the specific cooling water requirement from 23 to 12 kg/kg and reducing the specific energy consumption from 129 to 41 kWh/m3 with respect to the stand-alone RV-MSF system. However, this achievement incurs an additional specific area for heat transfer which increased from 29 to 65 m2/(kg/s). This is because a large number of MD modules are incorporated into the hybridisation.

Airfoil-shaped filament feed spacer for improved filtration performance in water treatment.

Optimal spacer design enhances the filtration performance in spiral-wound modules by controlling the local hydrodynamics inside the filtration channel. A novel airfoil feed spacer design fabricated using 3D-printing technology is proposed in this study. The design is a ladder-shaped configuration with primary airfoil-shaped filaments facing the incoming feed flow. The airfoil filaments are reinforced by cylindrical pillars supporting the membrane surface. Laterally, all the airfoil filaments are connected by thin cylindrical filaments. The performances of the novel airfoil spacers are evaluated at Angle of Attack (AOA) of 10° (A-10 spacer) and 30° (A-30 spacer) and compared with commercial (COM) spacer. At fixed operating conditions, simulations indicate steady-state hydrodynamics inside the channel for A-10 spacer, while an unsteady state is found for A-30 spacer. Numerical wall shear stress for airfoil spacers is uniformly distributed and has a higher magnitude than the COM spacer. A-30 spacer design is the most efficient in ultrafiltration process with enhanced permeate flux (228%) and reduced specific energy consumption (23%) and biofouling development (74%) as characterized by Optical Coherence Tomography. Results systematically demonstrate the influential role of airfoil-shaped filaments for feed spacer design. Modifying AOA allows localized hydrodynamics to be effectively controlled according to the filtration type and operating conditions.

Evaluating dye recovery and reusability potential from dyebath effluent using forward osmosis membranes for minimum liquid discharge.

This study focuses on the evaluation of dye recovery and reuse potential from denim and polyester effluents using forward osmosis (FO). A cationic surfactant, tetraethylammonium bromide (TEAB), was used as the draw solution (DS). After optimizing the DS and feed solution (FS) concentrations and temperatures in batch experiments, a DS concentration of 0.75 M was selected at a 60 °C temperature for the semi-continuous mode. It generated a high flux of 18 L/m2/h and a low reverse solute flux (RSF) of 0.4 g/m2/h with 100% dye rejection. Dye reconcentration of 82-98% was achieved in the dyebath effluents. The unique property of surfactants to combine hundreds of monomers into micelle resulted in negligible RSF. Reversible fouling was observed on the membrane active layer, and NaOH and citric acid cleaning achieved about 95% of flux recovery. The functional groups on the membrane's active layer remained undisturbed due to foulant interactions showing its chemical stability against reactive dyes. Recovered dye characterization using 1D proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1HNMR) analysis depicted a 100% structural resemblance to the original dye. Hence, it can be reused for dyeing the next batch. Diluted TEAB solution can be used as fabric detergent and softener within the same textile industry in the finishing process. A minimum liquid and persistent pollutant (dyes) discharge is achieved by adopting the methodology proposed in this work with a strong potential of translating it to an industrial scale.

Deployment of Superhydrophilic and Super-antifouling Cr-soc-MOF-1-Based Membrane for Ultrafast Separation of Stabilized Oil-in-Water Emulsions.

In spite of massive progress in oil-water separation, attributable to the use of advanced materials, the separation process faces challenges such as low permeance and fouling problems. Therefore, superwettable materials used in several fields are considered potential candidates for oily wastewater treatment. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are receiving more and more interest in various separation applications due to their wide potential applications. Nevertheless, MOFs have been rarely explored for separating stabilized oil-in-water emulsions due to the difficulty in finding highly hydrolytic stable MOF candidates for this application. Furthermore, oil can clog water-stable materials owing to its high density, causing the degradation of MOF particles. As a result, there is a need to develop better MOF materials that can fulfill these requirements. Herein, we have explored Cr-soc-MOF-1 as a candidate for this application and deployed it as a membrane, which exhibited superhydrophilicity and underwater superoleophobicity for separating stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. The Cr-soc-MOF-1 membranes were synthesized by assembling the as-prepared MOF particles on a mixed cellulose ester substrate using a vacuum-assisted self-assembly technique. The Cr-soc-MOF-1 membrane exhibited ultrahigh water permeance (7465.9 L·m-2·h-1·bar-1), very high oil rejection (99.9%), and excellent anti-oil-fouling properties. The Cr-soc-MOF-1 membranes also exhibited excellent recyclability over 10 continuous separation cycles. Further, they exhibited an outstanding performance in separating various surfactant-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. Thus, the Cr-soc-MOF-1 membranes exhibit a high potential in treating oily wastewater.

Calibrating and Validating the MFI-UF Method to Measure Particulate Fouling in Reverse Osmosis.

This study aimed to calibrate and validate the MFI-UF method in order to ensure the accuracy of particulate fouling measurements in RO. Firstly, the MFI-UF calibration was examined using two solutions of standard particles (dextran and polystyrene). Two main criteria were investigated: (i) MFI-UF linearity with particle concentrations at both low and high ranges of fouling potential and (ii) the reproducibility of MFI-UF linearity. Dextran solutions showed a strong MFI-UF linearity over the entire range of measured MFI-UF. However, the linearity was not reproducible, and different batches of dextran prepared under the same conditions produced very variable results. For polystyrene solutions, the MFI-UF linearity was verified at the higher range of MFI-UF (>10,000 s/L2), while the MFI-UF at the lower range (<5000 s/L2) appeared to be underestimated. Secondly, MFI-UF linearity was investigated using natural (surface) water under a wide range of testing conditions (at 20-200 L/m2·h using 5-100 kDa membranes). Strong MFI-UF linearity was obtained over the entire range of measured MFI-UF (up to 70,000 s/L2). Thus, the MFI-UF method was validated to measure different levels of particulate fouling in RO. However, future research focusing on MFI-UF calibration is still required through the selection, preparation, and testing of heterogeneous mixtures of standard particles.

A Fouling Comparison Study of Algal, Bacterial and Humic Organic Matters in Seawater Desalination Pretreatment Using Ceramic UF Membranes.

This study investigates three types of organic matter, namely algal organic matter (AOM), bacterial organic matter (BOM), and humic organic matter (HOM). These organics are different in properties and chemical composition. AOM, BOM and HOM were compared in terms of organic content, fouling behavior, and removal efficiency in ceramic UF filtration. UF experiments were conducted at a constant flux mode using 5 kDa and 50 kDa ceramic membranes. Results showed that 5 kDa membrane removed more transparent exopolymer particles (TEP)/organics than 50 kDa membranes, but less fouling formation for all the three types of organic matters tested. Membranes exhibited the lowest trans-membrane pressure (TMP) during the filtration of HOM, most probably due to the high porosity of the HOM cake layer, contributed by big HOM aggregates under Ca bridging effect. AOM shows the highest MFI-UF (modified fouling index-ultrafiltration) and TMP (transmembrane pressure) values among the three organics and during all filtration cycles for both membranes. The AOM fouling layer is well known for having high fouling potential due to its compressibility and compactness which increase the TMP and eventually the MFI values. AOM and BOM organics exhibited a similar fouling behavior and mechanism. Furthermore, the divalent cations such as calcium showed a significant impact on membrane fouling. That is probably because calcium ions made the membranes and organic matter less negatively charged and easier to deposit on membranes, thus, enhancing the membrane fouling significantly.

Freeze desalination: Current research development and future prospects.

Desalination is the solution for water security in regions with insufficient resources. This comes at high energy cost and hence improving desalination technologies translate into huge saving. Freeze desalination (FD) is emerging as an attractive low energy and less corrosion alternative to provide the needed fresh water. The maturity of the heat driven cooling technology and solar cooling have given freeze desalination an additional momentum. This paper summarizes the latest research progress done on FD that continues to push this technology towards deployment. It gives an overview of the FD configurations and highlighting its pros and cons, presents the recent experimental work that investigate the physics of the technology, and reviews the latest high-fidelity numerical modeling of brine freezing and salt diffusion away from crystal lattice which taps on the advanced development in computational power and multiphysics integration. This enables one to identify the challenges facing FD technology and stating the prospect and foreseeable research. The finding suggests that direct and indirect FD have been evolved well while the indirect is becoming the mainstream method for risk avoidance, while vacuum freezing and eutectic freezing are still facing large obstacles in their application. For direct FD, gas hydrate combined with liquefied natural gas (LNG) regasification has been popular topics to reduce their desalination cost. Simulation and modeling development in indirect FD continue to improve the knowledge of the mechanism of ice growth and salt entrapment which are key problems that need further experimental and numerical investigations. Nonetheless, the current successful application of LNG cold energy in freeze desalination, the hybridization of FD with conventional desalination technologies, as well as ultrasound assisted freezing are promising directions for FD commercialization.

Recovering and reuse of textile dyes from dyebath effluent using surfactant driven forward osmosis to achieve zero hazardous chemical discharge.

This experimental study explores the feasibility of the reuse of dyes recovered from denim and polyester dyebath effluents using forward osmosis (FO) system to achieve zero hazardous material discharge. In batch experiments, the sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at 0.5 M concentration generated an average flux of 3.5 L/m2/h (LMH) and reverse salt flux (RSF) of only 0.012 g/m2/h (GMH), while maintaining 100% dye rejection. This flux stability comes from the property of surfactants to form micelles and exert a stable osmotic pressure (π) above their critical micelle concentration (CMC). The low RSF is due to the greater micelle size. A colored fouling layer was formed on the membrane active layer (AL), which was easily removed using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and citric acid. According to Fourier transform infrared spectra and atomic forces microscopy images of the AL, the interaction between foulants and membrane active groups did not significantly affect the physiochemical properties of the membrane. In the semi-continuous experiment, a very stable average flux of 7.3 LMH and RSF of 0.03 GMH was obtained using 0.75 M SDS as draw solution. The stacked 1D proton nuclear magnetic resonance analysis (1HNMR) spectra of both original and recovered disperse dyes showed 100% similarity, which validates the concept that the recovered dyes maintained their integrity during reconcentration and can be reused in the next batch dyeing process. Importantly, the diluted SDS concentration can be directly reused within the same textile industry in scouring and finishing processes. The processes of dye recovery and reuse developed in this study do not produce any waste or hazardous by-products and are suitable for scale-up and onsite industrial applications.

Elucidating biofouling over thermal and spatial gradients in seawater membrane distillation in hot climatic conditions.

Biofouling is a hurdle of seawater desalination that increases water costs and energy consumption. In membrane distillation (MD), biofouling development is complicated due to the temperature effect that adversely affects microbial growth. Given the high relevance of MD to regions with abundant warm seawater, it is essential to explore the biofouling propensity of microbial communities with higher tolerance to elevated temperature conditions. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the spatial and temporal biofilm distribution and associated membrane fouling during direct contact MD (DCMD) of the Red Sea water. We found that structure and composition of the biofilm layer played a significant role in the extent of permeate flux decline, and biofilms that built up at 45°C had lower bacterial concentration but higher extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) content as compared to biofilms that formed at 55 °C and 65°C. Pore wetting and bacterial passage to the permeate side were initially observed but slowed down as operating time increased. Intact cells in biofilms dominated over the damaged cells at any tested condition emphasizing the high adaptivity of the Red Sea microbial communities to elevated feed temperatures. A comparison of microbial abundance revealed a difference in bacterial distribution between the feed and biofilm samples. A shift in the biofilm microbial community and colonization of the membrane surface with thermophilic bacteria with the feed temperature increase was observed. The results of this study improve our understanding of biofouling propensity in MD that utilizes temperature-resilient feed waters.

Desalination at ambient temperature and pressure by a novel class of biporous anisotropic membrane.

Recent scientific advances have made headway in addressing pertinient issues in climate change and the sustainability of our natural environment. This study makes use of a novel approach to desalination that is environment friendly, naturally sustainable and energy efficient, meaning that it is also cost efficient. Evaporation is a key phenomenon in the natural environment and used in many industrial applications including desalination. For a liquid droplet, the vapor pressure changes due to the curved liquid-vapor interface at the droplet surface. The vapor pressure at a convex surface in a pore is, therefore, higher than that at a flat surface due to the capillary effect, and this effect is enhanced as the pore radius decreases. This concept inspired us to design a novel biporous anisotropic membrane for membrane distillation (MD), which enables to desalinate water at ambient temperature and pressure by applying only a small transmembrane temperature gradient. The novel membrane is described as a super-hydrophobic nano-porous/micro-porous composite membrane. A laboratory-made membrane with specifications determined by the theoretical model was prepared for model validation and tested for desalination at different feed inlet temperatures by direct contact MD. A water vapor flux as high as 39.94 ± 8.3 L m-2 h-1 was achieved by the novel membrane at low feed temperature (25 °C, permeate temperature = 20 °C), while the commercial PTFE membrane, which is widely used in MD research, had zero flux under the same operating conditions. As well, the fluxes of the fabricated membrane were much higher than the commercial membrane at various inlet feed temperatures.

MXene-Coated Membranes for Autonomous Solar-Driven Desalination.

Clean water supply in off-grid locations remains a stumbling stone for socio-economic development in remote areas where solar energy is abundant. In this regard, several technologies have already introduced various solutions to the off-grid freshwater predicament; however, most of them are either costly or complex to operate. Nonetheless, photothermal membrane distillation (PMD) has emerged as a promising candidate with great potential to be autonomously driven by solar energy. Instead of using energy-intensive bulk feed heating in conventional MD systems, PMD membranes can directly harvest the incident solar light at the membrane interface as an alternative driving energy resource for the desalination process. Because of its excellent photothermal properties and stability in ionic environments, herein, Ti3C2Tx MXene was coated onto commercial polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranes to allow for a self-heated PMD process. An average water vapor flux of 0.77 kg/m2 h with an excellent temporal response under intermitting lighting and a photothermal efficiency of 65.3% were achieved by the PMD membrane under one-sun irradiation for a feed salinity of 0.36 g/L. Naturally, the efficiency of the process decreased with higher feed concentrations due to the reduction of the evaporation rate and the scattering of incident sunlight toward the membrane photothermal surface, especially at rates above 10 g/L. Notably, with such performance, 1 m2 of the MXene-coated PMD membrane can fulfill the recommended daily potable water intake for a household, that is, ca. 6 L/day.

Preparation of fouling resistant and highly perm-selective novel PSf/GO-vanillin nanofiltration membrane for efficient water purification.

To meet the rising global demand for water, it is necessary to develop membranes capable of efficiently purifying contaminated water sources. Herein, we report a series of novel polysulfone (PSf)/GO-vanillin nanofiltration membranes highly permeable, selective, and fouling resistant. The membranes are composed of two-dimensional (2D) graphite oxide (GO) layers embedded with vanillin as porogen and PSf as the base polymer. There is a growing interest in addressing the synergistic effect of GO and vanillin on improving the permeability and antifouling characteristics of membranes. Various spectroscopic and microscopic techniques were used to perform detailed physicochemical and morphological analyses. The optimized PSf16/GO0.15-vanillin0.8 membrane demonstrated 92.5% and 25.4% rejection rate for 2000 ppm magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) and sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions respectively. Antifouling results showed over 99% rejection for BSA and 93.57% flux recovery ratio (FRR). Experimental work evaluated the antifouling characteristics of prepared membranes to treat landfill leachate wastewater. The results showed 84-90% rejection for magnesium (Mg+2) and calcium (Ca+2) with 90.32 FRR. The study experimentally demonstrated that adding GO and vanillin to the polymeric matrix significantly improves fouling resistance and membrane performance. Future research will focus on molecular sieving for industrial separations and other niche applications using mixed matrix membranes.

Economics and Energy Consumption of Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis Desalination: Innovations and Impacts of Feedwater Quality.

Brackish water desalination, using the reverse osmosis (BWRO) process, has become common in global regions, where vast reserves of brackish groundwater are found (e.g., the United States, North Africa). A literature survey and detailed analyses of several BWRO facilities in Florida have revealed some interesting and valuable information on the costs and energy use. Depending on the capacity, water quality, and additional scope items, the capital cost (CAPEX) ranges from USD 500 to USD 2947/m3 of the capacity (USD 690-USD 4067/m3 corrected for inflation to 2020). The highest number was associated with the City of Cape Coral North Plant, Florida, which had an expanded project scope. The general range of the operating cost (OPEX) is USD 0.39 to USD 0.66/m3 (cannot be corrected for inflation), for a range of capacities from 10,000 to 70,000 m3/d. The feed-water quality, in the range of 2000 to 6000 mg/L of the total dissolved solids, does not significantly impact the OPEX. There is a significant scaling trend, with OPEX cost reducing as plant capacity increases, but there is considerable scatter based on the pre- and post-treatment complexity. Many BWRO facilities operate with long-term increases in the salinity of the feedwater (groundwater), caused by pumping-induced vertical and horizontal migration of the higher salinity water. Any cost and energy increase that is caused by the higher feed water salinity, can be significantly mitigated by using energy recovery, which is not commonly used in BWRO operations. OPEX in BWRO systems is likely to remain relatively constant, based on the limitation on the plant capacity, caused by the brackish water availability at a given site. Seawater reverse osmosis facilities, with a very large capacity, have a lower OPEX compared to the upper range of BWRO, because of capacity scaling, special electrical energy deals, and process design certainty.

Potential Pitfalls in Membrane Fouling Evaluation: Merits of Data Representation as Resistance Instead of Flux Decline in Membrane Filtration.

The manner in which membrane-fouling experiments are conducted and how fouling performance data are represented have a strong impact on both how the data are interpreted and on the conclusions that may be drawn. We provide a couple of examples to prove that it is possible to obtain misleading conclusions from commonly used representations of fouling data. Although the illustrative example revolves around dead-end ultrafiltration, the underlying principles are applicable to a wider range of membrane processes. When choosing the experimental conditions and how to represent fouling data, there are three main factors that should be considered: (I) the foulant mass is principally related to the filtered volume; (II) the filtration flux can exacerbate fouling effects (e.g., concentration polarization and cake compression); and (III) the practice of normalization, as in dividing by an initial value, disregards the difference in driving force and divides the fouling effect by different numbers. Thus, a bias may occur that favors the experimental condition with the lower filtration flux and the less-permeable membrane. It is recommended to: (I) avoid relative fouling performance indicators, such as relative flux decline (J/J0); (II) use resistance vs. specific volume; and (III) use flux-controlled experiments for fouling performance evaluation.

Towards sustainable circular brine reclamation using seawater reverse osmosis, membrane distillation and forward osmosis hybrids: An experimental investigation.

Desalination and wastewater treatment technologies require an effective solution for brine management to ensure environmental sustainability, which is closely linked with efficient process operations, reduction of chemical dosages, and valorization of brines. Within the scope of desalination brine reclamation, a circular system consisting of seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO), membrane distillation (MD), and forward osmosis (FO) three-process hybrid is investigated. The proposed design increases water recovery from SWRO brine (by MD) and dilutes concentrated brine to seawater level (by FO) for SWRO feed. It ultimately reduces SWRO process brine disposal and improves crystallization efficiency for a zero-liquid discharge application. The operating range of the hybrid system is indicated by a seawater volumetric concentration factor (VCF) ranging from 1.0 to 2.2, which covers practical and sustainable operation in full-scale applications. Within the proposed VCF range, different operating conditions of the MD and FO processes were evaluated in series with concentrated seawater as well as real SWRO brine from a full-scale desalination plant. Water quality and membrane surface were analyzed before and after experiments to assess the impact of the SWRO brine. Despite their low concentration (0.13 mg/L as phosphorous), antiscalants present in SWRO brine alleviated the flux decline in MD operations by 68.3% compared to operations using seawater concentrate, while no significant influence was observed on the FO process. A full spectrum of water quality analysis of real SWRO brine and Red Sea water is made available for future SWRO brine reclamation studies. The operating conditions and experimental results have shown the potential of the SWRO-MD-FO hybrid system for a circular brine reclamation.

Investigation of flux stability and fouling mechanism during simultaneous treatment of different produced water streams using forward osmosis and membrane distillation.

Forward osmosis-membrane distillation (FO-MD) hybrids were recently found suitable for produced water treatment. Exclusion of synthetic chemical draw solutions, typically used for FO, can reduce FO-MD operational costs and ease its onsite application. This study experimentally validates a novel concept for the simultaneous treatment of different produced water streams available at the same industrial site using an FO-MD hybrid system. The water oil separator outlet (WO) stream was selected as FO draw solution and it generated average fluxes ranging between 8.30 LMH and 26.78 LMH with four different feed streams. FO fluxes were found to be governed by the complex composition of the feed streams. On the other hand, with WO stream as MD feed, an average flux of 14.41 LMH was achieved. Calcium ions were found as a main reason for MD flux decline in the form of CaSO4 scaling and stimulating the interaction between the membrane and humic acid molecules to form scale layer causing reduction in heat transfer and decline in MD flux (6%). Emulsified oil solution was responsible for partial pore clogging resulting in further 2% flux decline. Ethylenediaminetetraaceticacid (EDTA) was able to mask a portion of calcium ions and resulted in a complete recovery of the original MD flux. Under hybrid FO-MD experiments MD fluxes between 5.62 LMH and 11.12 LMH were achieved. Therefore, the novel concept is validated to produce fairly stable FO and MD fluxes, with few streams, without severe fouling and producing excellent product water quality.

Novel hole-pillar spacer design for improved hydrodynamics and biofouling mitigation in membrane filtration.

Feed spacers are the critical components of any spiral-wound filtration module, dictating the filtration performance. Three spacer designs, namely a non-woven commercial spacer (varying filament cross-section), a symmetric pillar spacer, and a novel hole-pillar spacer (constant filament diameter) were studied using Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS), 3-D printed and subsequently experimentally tested in a lab-scale ultrafiltration set-up with high biofouling potential feed water at various feed pressures. Independent of the applied pressure, the novel hole-pillar spacer showed initially the lowest feed channel pressure drop, the lowest shear stress, and the highest permeate flux compared to the commercial and pillar spacers. Furthermore, less biofilm thickness development on membrane surface was visualized by Optical Coherent Tomography (OCT) imaging for the proposed hole-pillar spacer. At higher feed pressure, a thicker biofilm developed on membrane surface for all spacer designs explaining the stronger decrease in permeate flux at high pressure. The findings systematically demonstrated the role of various spacer designs and applied pressure on the performance of pre-treatment process, while identifying specific shear stress distribution guidelines for engineering a new spacer design in different filtration techniques.

Controlling harmful algal blooms (HABs) by coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation using liquid ferrate and clay.

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) occur worldwide and threaten the quality of marine life, public health, and membrane facilities in Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) desalination plants. The effects of HABs on seawater desalination plants include extensive membrane fouling, increased coagulant consumption and plant shutdown. To determine how to mitigate such effects, this study assessed if low doses (0.01 mg/L, 0.10 mg/L, and 1.00 mg/L) of liquid ferrate (58% yield) and kaolin or montmorillonite clays alone could remove algal organic matter in coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation (CFS) pretreatment desalination systems. Results showed that 0.01 mg/L of liquid ferrate coagulant removed 42% of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 52% of biopolymers (BP), 71% of algal cells, and 99.5% of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). At a dose of 0.01 mg/L, clays exhibited high removal of turbidity (up to 88%), BP (up to 80%) and algal cells (up to 67%). The combination of liquid ferrate (58% yield) as a coagulant with kaolin or montmorillonite clays as coagulant aids in CFS pretreatment led to 72% removal of DOC, 86% of BP, and 84% of algal cells with a fixed dose of 0.01 mg/L for each. Findings from this study can help SWRO plants improve the performance of pretreatment systems during algal bloom events by reducing the consumption of coagulants while also maintaining high removal efficiencies.