Causes and consequences of tipping points in river delta social-ecological systems.

The sustainability of social-ecological systems within river deltas globally is in question as rapid development and environmental change trigger "negative" or "positive" tipping points depending on actors' perspectives, e.g. regime shift from abundant sediment deposition to sediment shortage, agricultural sustainability to agricultural collapse or shift from rural to urban land use. Using a systematic review of the literature, we show how cascading effects across anthropogenic, ecological, and geophysical processes have triggered numerous tipping points in the governance, hydrological, and land-use management of the world's river deltas. Crossing tipping points had both positive and negative effects that generally enhanced economic development to the detriment of the environment. Assessment of deltas that featured prominently in the review revealed how outcomes of tipping points can inform the long-term trajectory of deltas towards sustainability or collapse. Management of key drivers at the delta scale can trigger positive tipping points to place social-ecological systems on a pathway towards sustainable development.

Variations in biophysical characteristics of mangroves along retreating and advancing shorelines.

Mangrove shoreline retreat or advance is a natural process in a mangrove delta. However, due to various natural and anthropogenic stressors, mangrove shoreline retreat is the second largest cause of mangrove loss globally. It is important to understand the scale at which mangrove shoreline changes are causing biophysical changes along the mangrove shorelines and, in turn, understand if certain biophysical characteristics can explain the changes along the shoreline. This will help identify the response of mangroves to shoreline changes. Videography and spatial mapping were used to study temporarily and permanently changing mangrove shorelines in the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world (~10,000 km2), located in India and Bangladesh. Data was collected along a ~ 239 km shoreline at 54 sites. 36.4 % of all the studied shorelines were experiencing major retreat, 63.8 % and 27.2 % of all (major and minor) retreating areas had 1-25 % and > 25 % dead trees. The biophysical characteristics statistically (P < 0.0001) associated with retreating mangrove shorelines were - cliff-type shoreline profiles, number of dead trees, and absence of stream and grass, with shoreline profiles as the strongest predictor of shoreline retreat. Moreover, 68.7 % and 73 % of historically retreating shorelines had a cliff-type shoreline profile and Excoecaria agallocha as the dominating species, respectively. Moreover, due to the strong correlation between historical changes and current shoreline types, it was concluded that characteristics along the shoreline are partly a product of historical shoreline transitions. Thus, the present status of the shoreline can not only predict the history of the shoreline but can also give insights into the future biophysical changes in the mangrove forests.

Dimension-Controlled Synthesis of Hybrid-Mixed Halide Perovskites for Solar Cell Application.

Despite the rapid improvement of photovoltaic (PV) efficiency in hybrid organic-inorganic metal halide perovskites (HOIPs), the fabrication procedure of a compact thin film in a large-area application is still a tedious work. Apart from the quality of the thin film, the stability of the perovskite materials and the expensive organic hole transport layer (HTL) within the HOIP-based PV device are the major issues that need to be addressed prior to their commercialization. Herein, a unique glass rod-based facile fabrication technique for producing a compact and stable thin film utilizing a mixed-halide-based perovskite precursor solution is demonstrated. The fabricated devices deliver high photoconversion efficiency (PCE) without the use of any HTL and show an excellent stability under ambient conditions. By varying the organic CH3NH3I (MAI) and inorganic PbBr2 content, perovskite materials with different dimensions, i.e., 3D, 2D, and 1D, are synthesized to produce an active layer for PV devices. Although a 2D single-halide perovskite is reported earlier, herein two different mixed-halide 2D perovskites, i.e., MA2PbI2Br2 and MAPb2IBr4, are synthesized successfully, and their performance is compared in detail along with that of 1D and 3D mixed-halide perovskites. The facile synthesized mixed-halide 2D-based MA2PbI2Br2 perovskite shows a PCE of 10.14% with a high stability of 92% after 100 days without encapsulation, which is much superior as compared to that of the mixed-halide 3D MAPbIBr2. The semiconducting behavior as well as the nature of the bandgap of the synthesized compounds is examined by pursuing density functional theory calculations. Specifically, the role of iodine doping to modify the electronic band structure is investigated, and introduction of iodine is found to reduce the effective masses of both electrons and holes in the perovskite material.

Sub-regional variation in atmospheric and land variables regulates tea yield in the Dooars region of West Bengal, India.

Climatic variables can have localized variations within a region and these localized climate patterns can have significant effect on production of climate-sensitive crops such as tea. Even though tea cultivation and industries significantly contribute to employment generation and foreign earnings of several South Asian nations including India, sub-regional differences in the effects of climatic and soil variables on tea yield have remained unexplored since past studies focused on a tea-producing region as a whole and did not account for local agro-climatic conditions. Here, using a garden-level panel dataset based on tea gardens of Dooars region, a prominent tea-producing region in India, we explored how sub-regional variations in climatic and land variables might differently affect tea yield within a tea-producing region. Our analysis showed that the Dooars region harboured significant spatial variability for different climatic (temperature, precipitation, surface solar radiation) and soil temperature variables. Using graph-based Louvain clustering of tea gardens, we identified four spatial sub-regions which varied in terms of topography, annual and seasonal distribution of climatic and land variables and tea yield. Our sub-region-specific panel regression analyses revealed differential effects of climatic and land variables on tea yield of different sub-regions. Finally, for different emission scenario, we also projected future (2025-2100) tea yield in each sub-region based on predictions of climatic variables from three GCMs (MIROC5, CCSM4 and CESM1(CAM5)). A large variation in future seasonal production changes was projected across sub-regions (-23.4-35.7% changes in premonsoon, -4.2-3.1% changes in monsoon and -10.9-10.7% changes in postmonsoon tea production, respectively).

Laterally Grown Strain-Engineered Semitransparent Perovskite Solar Cells with 16.01% Efficiency.

Hybrid organometallic halide perovskite-based semitransparent solar cell research has garnered significant attention recently due to their promising applications for smart windows, tandem devices, wearable electronics, displays, and sustainable internet-of-things. Though considerable progress has been made, stability, controlling the crystalline qualities, and growth orientation in perovskite thin films play crucial roles in improving the photovoltaic (PV) performance. Recently, strain modulation within the perovskite gathers an immense interest that is achieved by the ex situ process. However, little work is reported on in situ strain modulation, which is presented here. Apart from the challenges in the fabrication of high-efficiency perovskite solar cell (PSC) devices under ambient conditions, the stability of organic hole-transporting materials needs urgent attention. Herein, a single-step deposition of formamidiniumchloride (FACl)-mediated CH3NH3PbI3 (MAPbI3) thin films without an inert atmosphere and CuI as the inorganic hole-transporting material is demonstrated for their potential application toward semitransparent PSCs. The FACl amount in MAPbI3 (mg/mL) plays a critical role in controlling the crystallinity, growth orientations, and in situ strains, which modulate the charge carrier transport dynamics, thereby improving the efficiency of the PSC device. A photoconversion efficiency of 16.01% has been achieved from MAPbI3 with 20 mg/mL of FACl additive incorporation. The modification of the structural, electronic, and optical properties and the origin of strain in the as-synthesized MAPbI3 domains due to the addition of FACl are further validated with experimental findings in detail using density functional theory simulations.

Role of herbicides in the decline of butterfly population and diversity.

The herbicides not only produce a lethal effect on herbs but also indirectly harm those species which use herbs as host plants during their life cycle. The adverse effect of herbicide is comparatively more than any insecticide found in the agricultural industry. Herbicides act as enzyme inhibitors that block the synthesis of essential biomolecules in herbs. Action mechanisms in which herbicides act on the plant body as well as the classification of the herbicides according to their mode of action have been recorded. Lethal effects of herbicides cause qualitative and quantitative losses of herb-weeds and associated beneficial herbs from crop fields that lead to the decline in diversity of butterfly population. Lack of food sources, alteration of life cycle and morphological anomalies are found as a result of herbicidal interference on enzymatic reactions in butterflies. Beneficial organisms and pollinators are included within the affected ones. We selected the butterfly as it is recognized as a good indicator species. The effects of two graminicide fluazifop-p-butyl and sethoxydim, and a surfactant (like 'Preference' that help to increase penetration) were evaluated on Icaricia icarioides blackmorei and Pieris rapae in the laboratory. Glyphosate and glufosinate ammonium (GLA) kill milkweed plants (Asclepias sp.) by blocking the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3 phosphate synthase (EPSPS) enzyme. 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), an herbicide used in forest and nature reserves, is toxic to springtails (Onychiurus quadriocellatus) upon direct contact resulting a disastrous effect on Monarch. Fifth instar caterpillars of skipper butterfly Calpodes ethlius die when they are fed GLA-treated host plants. Atrazine and S-metolachlor are the two other herbicides which are thought to have a role on milkweed plant whose leaves are the food of the larvae. Triclopyr, sethoxydim, and imazapyr are the three herbicides that reduced the adult emergence of Behr's metalmark butterfly. The objective of the study is to provide precise information regarding the relationship between herbicides and butterflies as well as the recommendation of feasible strategies for butterfly conservation with respect to weed management.

How do migration decisions and drivers differ against extreme environmental events?

Migration is often understood to be a livelihood strategy to cope with the effects of environmental threats and climate change. Yet, the extent to which migration decisions differ due to the type, severity, and frequency of environmental events has been little explored. This paper employs household surveys in southwestern Bangladesh to explore this research gap. A multinominal regression model is used to simulate reported future migration decisions (200 sample households) in the context of both rapid-onset (i.e. cyclone and flood) and slow-onset (salinity, siltation, and riverbank erosion) environmental phenomena. Results show: i) previous disaster experience and increasing conflict in the community motivate migration in the near future in the context of slow-onset phenomena (salinity); (ii) economic strength and self-efficacy increase non-migration intention in both contexts of sudden and slow-onset events; and (iii) the extent and pattern of these influences on migration differ across demographics, including education, religion, and age. Importantly, this analysis shows that the relationship between migration decisions and the type, severity, and frequency of environmental events is influenced by socioeconomic conditions. Therefore, this research supports future adaptation planning specifically tailored to the type and exposure of extreme environmental events.

Exchange-biased quantum tunnelling of magnetization in a [Mn3]2 dimer of single-molecule magnets with rare ferromagnetic inter-Mn3 coupling.

A covalently-linked dimer of two single-molecule magnets (SMMs), [Mn6O(O2CMe)6(1,3-ppmd)3](ClO4)2, has been synthesized from the reaction of [Mn3O(O2CMe)6(py)3](ClO4) with 1,3-phenylene-bis(pyridin-2-ylmethanone) dioxime (1,3-ppmdH2). It contains two [MnIII3O]+7 triangular units linked by three 1,3-ppmd2- groups into an [Mn3]2 dimer with D3 symmetry. Solid-state dc and ac magnetic susceptibility measurements showed that each Mn3 subunit retains its properties as an SMM with an S = 6 ground state. Magnetization vs. dc field sweeps on a single crystal reveal hysteresis loops below 1.3 K exhibiting exchange-biased quantum tunnelling of magnetization (QTM) steps with a bias field of +0.06 T. This is the first example of a dimer of SMMs showing a positive exchange bias of the QTM steps in the hysteresis loops, and it has therefore been subjected to a detailed analysis. Simulation of the loops determines that each Mn3 unit is exchange-coupled with its neighbour primarily through the 1,3-ppmd2- linkers, confirming a weak ferromagnetic inter-Mn3 interaction of J12≈ +6.5 mK (H = -2Jsi·sj convention). High-frequency EPR studies of a microcrystalline powder sample enable accurate determination of the zero-field splitting parameters of the uncoupled Mn3 SMMs, while also confirming the weak exchange interaction between the two SMMs within each [Mn3]2 dimer. The combined results emphasize the ability of designed covalent linkers to generate inter-SMM coupling of a particular sign and relative magnitude, and thus the ability of such linkers to modulate the quantum physics. As such, this work supports the feasibility of using designed covalent linkers to develop molecular oligomers of SMMs, or other magnetic molecules, as multi-qubit systems and/or other components of new quantum technologies.

Interpenetrating polymer network-based nanocomposites reinforced with octadecylamine capped Cu/reduced graphene oxide nanohybrid with hydrophobic, antimicrobial and antistatic attributes.

Designing of mechanically tough elastomeric materials encompassed with intrinsic surface hydrophobicity, antistatic and antimicrobial attributes is in skyrocketing demands, especially to protect the instruments which are submerged in water. Herein, the authors depicted the fabrication of interpenetrating polymer network-based nanocomposites containing different doses of octadecylamine capped Cu/RGO nanohybrid. The structures and morphologies of the synthesized nanohybrid and the fabricated nanocomposites were characterized by using FTIR, XRD, XPS, TGA, FESEM and TEM analyses. Most interestingly the nanocomposites showed good hydrophobicity (static contact angle: 119.2°-129.3°), low surface resistivity (~107 Ω m) and strong antimicrobial activity towards Gram negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Yersinia pestis) and Gram positive (Bacillus cereus) bacterial strains. The fabricated nanocomposites also exhibited antifungal (Candida albicans) activity. In addition, the fabricated nanocomposites showed excellent mechanical properties including high tensile strength (14.03-20.9 MPa), outstanding flexibility (1887-2470%), excellent toughness (249.89-510.1 MJ.m-3), high scratch resistance (>10 kg) and high thermostability (281-288 °C). Therefore, the fabricated nanocomposites can be used as an effective thin film for many advanced applications.

Risk of extreme events in delta environment: A case study of the Mahanadi delta.

Anthropogenic climate change is considered as one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats to the future world. Low lying deltas all over the world are increasingly subjected to multidimensional risk of sea level rise, cyclone, surges and salinisation. The life and livelihood of the communities of such deltas are endangered due to climate change acting as risk multiplier. The Mahanadi delta in the state of Odisha, India is one of the such populous deltas with estimated 8 million population in 2011 with a density of 613 persons/km2. Over the past decades, it experienced major climatic threats in the form of cyclone, surge inundation and flooding with variable intensities and impacts along and across the coast. The present research assessed the risk of climatic extreme events and their variability in the delta, with an intention of mitigation or adaptation to possible impacts in specific region. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data and daily rainfall data were used to extract flood inundation. Tropical Cyclone Risk Model (TCRM) along with surge decay function was used to estimate cyclonic wind speed and surge inundation and risk indices were computed using fuzzy logic based approach. The result shows that in the coastal districts, risk of severe cyclones rank above the heavy floods. Agriculture, the main livelihood of these districts (71%) is impacted adversely making the delta community vulnerable to such extreme events. Kendrapara followed by Bhadrak and Jagasinghpur districts appear to be most risk prone segment in the delta making the northern part comparatively more risk prone where focused mitigation and adaptation actions are needed.

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes reinforced interpenetrating polymer network with ultrafast self-healing and anti-icing attributes.

HYPOTHESIS: Fabrication of polymeric nanocomposites with suitable nanomaterial via an in-situ polymerization approach results in multifunctional advanced materials. EXPERIMENTS: The present work demonstrates the fabrication of interpenetrating polymer network (IPN)-based smart nanocomposites of polyurethane and polystyrene (PS) with different weight percentages of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). The MWCNT was grafted with pre-polymer of PS. The grafted-MWCNT and the nanocomposites were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopic, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopic studies. Further, different properties of the nanocomposites were evaluated. FINDINGS: The fabricated nanocomposites showed excellent enhancement in mechanical (tensile strength: 175.9%; elongation at break: 161.9%; and toughness: 279.8%) and thermal (initial degradation temperature: 107.8%) properties compared to the pristine IPN. The improved properties are because of strong interfacial matrix-nanomaterial interactions. In addition, the nanocomposites demonstrated high water repellence (static contact angle varied from 127.9° to 143.6°), outstanding self-cleaning and anti-icing (freezing delay time of 1850-2700 s) behaviors. Most interestingly, the fabricated nanocomposites exhibited excellent self-healing ability under the exposure of microwave (within 46-22 s at 300 W power input) and sunlight (within 318-257 s, light intensity: 0.9-1.1 × 105 lux). Therefore, the studied nanocomposites hold significant potential to be used in the domains of advanced smart materials.

Silicone-Containing Biodegradable Smart Elastomeric Thermoplastic Hyperbranched Polyurethane.

Silicone-containing biobased hyperbranched polyurethane thermoplastic elastomers at different compositions were reported for the first time. The structures of the polymers were evaluated from Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, NMR, X-ray diffraction, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analyses. The synthesized elastomers possess high molecular weight (1.11-1.38 × 105 g·mol-1) and low glass transition temperature (from -40.0 to -27.3 °C). These polymers exhibited multistimuli responsive excellent repeatable intrinsic self-healing (100% efficiency), shape recovery (100%), and efficient self-cleaning (contact angle 102°-107°) abilities along with exceptional elongation at break (2834-3145%), high toughness (123.3-167.8 MJ·m-3), good impact resistance (18.3-20.3 kJ·m-1), and adequate tensile strength (5.9-6.9 MPa). Furthermore, high thermal stability (253-263 °C) as well as excellent UV and chemical resistance was also found for the polymers. Most interestingly, controlled bacterial biodegradation under exposure of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacterial strains demonstrated them as sustainable materials. Therefore, such biobased novel thermoplastic polyurethane elastomers with self-healing, self-cleaning, and shape memory effects possess great potential for their advanced multifaceted applications.

Threats to coastal communities of Mahanadi delta due to imminent consequences of erosion - Present and near future.

Coastal erosion is a natural hazard which causes significant loss to properties as well as coastal habitats. Coastal districts of Mahanadi delta, one of the most populated deltas of the Indian subcontinent, are suffering from the ill effects of coastal erosion. An important amount of assets is being lost every year along with forced migration of huge portions of coastal communities due to erosion. An attempt has been made in this study to predict the future coastline of the Mahanadi Delta based on historical trends. Historical coastlines of the delta have been extracted using semi-automated Tasselled Cap technique from the LANDSAT satellite imageries of the year 1990, 1995, 2000, 2006 and 2010. Using Digital Shoreline Assessment System (DSAS) tool of USGS, the trend of the coastline has been assessed in the form of End Point Rate (EPR) and Linear Regression Rate (LRR). A hybrid methodology has been adopted using statistical (EPR) and trigonometric functions to predict the future positions of the coastlines of the years 2020, 2035 and 2050. The result showed that most of the coastline (≈65%) is facing erosion at present. The predicted outcome shows that by the end of year 2050 the erosion scenario will worsen which in turn would lead to very high erosion risk for 30% of the total coastal mouzas (small administrative blocks). This study revealed the coastal erosion trend of Mahanadi delta and based on the predicted coastlines it can be inferred that the coastal communities in near future would be facing substantial threat due to erosion particularly in areas surrounding Puri (a renowned tourist pilgrimage) and Paradwip (one of the busiest ports and harbours of the country).

A framework for identifying and selecting long term adaptation policy directions for deltas.

Deltas are precarious environments experiencing significant biophysical, and socio-economic changes with the ebb and flow of seasons (including with floods and drought), with infrastructural developments (such as dikes and polders), with the movement of people, and as a result of climate and environmental variability and change. Decisions are being taken about the future of deltas and about the provision of adaptation investment to enable people and the environment to respond to the changing climate and related changes. The paper presents a framework to identify options for, and trade-offs between, long term adaptation strategies in deltas. Using a three step process, we: (1) identify current policy-led adaptations actions in deltas by conducting literature searches on current observable adaptations, potential transformational adaptations and government policy; (2) develop narratives of future adaptation policy directions that take into account investment cost of adaptation and the extent to which significant policy change/political effort is required; and (3) explore trade-offs that occur within each policy direction using a subjective weighting process developed during a collaborative expert workshop. We conclude that the process of developing policy directions for adaptation can assist policy makers in scoping the spectrum of options that exist, while enabling them to consider their own willingness to make significant policy changes within the delta and to initiate transformative change.

Tough interpenetrating polymer network of silicone containing polyurethane and polystyrene with self-healing, shape memory and self-cleaning attributes.

Smart biodegradable tough interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) of bio-based polyurethane containing a silicone moiety and polystyrene at three different compositions were synthesized for the first time by using simultaneous polymerization technique. The structures of the synthesized IPNs were interpreted by FTIR, NMR, and XRD analyses, while morphology was provided from a SEM study. The synthesized IPNs exhibited outstanding elongation at break (up to 1608%) along with good tensile strength (up to 12.6 MPa), toughness (up to 92.34 MJ m-3), impact resistance (up to 26.8 kJ m-1), scratch resistance (up to 6.5 kg) and durometer hardness (up to 86 Shore A). Furthermore, the synthesized IPNs exhibited good thermal stability up to 245 °C and chemical resistance. Interestingly, these IPNs showed multi-stimuli responsive self-healing (within 62 s at 450 W microwave and 6-8 min under sunlight) and shape memory (100% shape recovery within 48 s with a 450 W microwave and 7-13 min under direct sunlight) behavior. A self-cleaning attribute was also observed for the synthesized IPNs which showed a static contact angle up to 120.8° and angle of hysteresis <5°. Most interestingly, the synthesized IPNs also exhibited moderate bio-degradation under the exposure to a P. aeruginosa bacterial strain. Therefore, the synthesized smart bio-degradable tough IPNs with the above properties have great potential for different advanced multifaceted applications.

Virulence assay and role of Bacillus thuringiensis TS110 as biocontrol agent against the larval stages of rice leaffolder Cnaphalocrocis medinalis.

The bacterial isolate Bacillus thuringiensis TS110 was isolated from the rice field soil of Burdwan district, West Bengal, India. Bioassay test of the bacteria TS110 against 3rd, 4th and 5th instar larvae of Cnaphalocrocis medinalis was carried out. Cut leaf assay, potted plant assay and field assay were done. During filed assay, it has been observed that the LC50 (×107) values of TS110 against 3rd, 4th and 5th instar larvae of C. medinalis were 3.77, 5.29, 4.83 and 4.93, 4.42, 4.72 in dry and wet season, respectively. The morphological, biochemical and phylogenetic analysis of the isolate TS110 were done. TS110 was positive for catalase, nitrate reductase, methyl red, voges-proskauer, oxidase, urease, indole, citrate utilization, arginine dihydrolase test, starch, lipid, gelatin, casein, and lecithin hydrolysis test. TS110 showed fermentation test positive for glucose, fructose, mannose, arabinose and trehalose in nutrient broth medium. The antibiotic sensitivity test showed that the bacterial isolate was sensitive to kanamycin (30 µg/disc), nalidixic acid (30 µg/disc), rifampicin (5 µg/disc), doxycycline (30 µg/disc), gatifloxacin (10 µg/disc), vancomycin (30 µg/disc), gentamycin (10 µg/disc), ampicillin (10 µg/disc), ofloxacin (5 µg/disc), levofloxacin (5 µg/disc), streptomycin (10 µg/disc), gentamycin (10 µg/disc). The phylogenetic analysis revealed that TS110 was closely related to different species of B. thuringiensis submitted to the GenBank. On the basis of morpho-physiological and molecular characterization, the bacterial isolate was identified as B. thuringiensis.

The conserved phylogeny of blood microbiome.

The proliferation and intensification of diseases have forced every researcher to take actions for a robust understanding of the organisms. This demands deep knowledge about the cells and tissues in an organ and its entire surroundings, more precisely the microbiome community which involves viruses, bacteria, archaea, among others. They play an important role in the function of our body, and act both as a deterrent as well as shelter for diseases. Therefore, it is pertinent to study the relation within the microbiome in a human body. In this work, we analyze the sequence data provided through the Human Microbiome Project to explore evolutionary relations within blood microbiome. The objective is to analyze the common proteins present in the different microbes in the blood and find their phylogeny. The analysis of the phylogenetic relation between these species provides important insights about the conservedness of phylogeny of blood microbiome. Interestingly, the co-existence of five of those common proteins is observed in human too.

Projected changes in area of the Sundarban mangrove forest in Bangladesh due to SLR by 2100.

The Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem, located in India and Bangladesh, is recognized as a global priority for biodiversity conservation and is an important provider of ecosystem services such as numerous goods and protection against storm surges. With global mean sea-level rise projected as up to 0.98 m or greater by 2100 relative to the baseline period (1985-2005), the Sundarbans - mean elevation presently approximately 2 m above mean sea-level - is under threat from inundation and subsequent wetland loss; however the magnitude of loss remains unclear. We used remote and field measurements, geographic information systems and simulation modelling to investigate the potential effects of three sea-level rise scenarios on the Sundarbans within coastal Bangladesh. We illustrate how the Sea Level Affecting Marshes Model (SLAMM) is able to reproduce the observed area losses for the period 2000-2010. Using this calibrated model and assuming that mean sea-level is a better proxy than the SLAMM assumed mean lower low water for Mangrove area delineation, the estimated mangrove area net losses (relative to year 2000) are 81-178 km2, 111-376 km2 and 583-1393 km2 for relative sea-level rise scenarios to 2100 of 0.46 m, 0.75 m and 1.48 m, respectively and net subsidence of ±2.5 mm/year. These area losses are very small (<10 % of present day area) and significantly smaller than previous research has suggested. Our simulations also suggest that erosion rather than inundation may remain the dominant loss driver to 2100 under certain scenarios of sea-level rise and net subsidence. Only under the highest scenarios does inundation due to sea-level rise become the dominant loss process.

Covalently Linked Dimer of Mn3 Single-Molecule Magnets and Retention of Its Structure and Quantum Properties in Solution.

[Mn3O(O2CMe)3(dpd)3/2)]2(I3)2 has been obtained from the reaction of 1,3-di(pyridin-2-yl)propane-1,3-dione dioxime (dpdH2) with triangular [Mn(III)3O(O2CMe)(py)3](ClO4). It comprises two [Mn(III)3O](7+) triangular units linked covalently by three dioximate ligands into a [Mn3]2 dimer. Solid state dc and ac magnetic susceptibility measurements reveal that each Mn3 subunit of the dimer is a separate single-molecule magnet (SMM) with an S = 6 ground state and that the two SMM units are very weakly ferromagnetically exchange coupled. High-frequency EPR spectroscopy on a single crystal displays signal splittings indicative of quantum superposition/entanglement of the two SMMs, and parallel studies on MeCN/toluene (1:1) frozen solutions reveal the same spectral features. The dimer thus retains its structure and inter-Mn3 coupling upon dissolution. This work establishes that covalently linked molecular oligomers of exchange-coupled SMMs can be prepared that retain their oligomeric nature and attendant inter-SMM quantum mechanical coupling in solution, providing a second phase for their study and demonstrating the feasibility of using solution methods for their deposition on surfaces and related substrates for study.