Cryo-EM structures of the human Elongator complex at work.

tRNA modifications affect ribosomal elongation speed and co-translational folding dynamics. The Elongator complex is responsible for introducing 5-carboxymethyl at wobble uridine bases (cm5U34) in eukaryotic tRNAs. However, the structure and function of human Elongator remain poorly understood. In this study, we present a series of cryo-EM structures of human ELP123 in complex with tRNA and cofactors at four different stages of the reaction. The structures at resolutions of up to 2.9 Å together with complementary functional analyses reveal the molecular mechanism of the modification reaction. Our results show that tRNA binding exposes a universally conserved uridine at position 33 (U33), which triggers acetyl-CoA hydrolysis. We identify a series of conserved residues that are crucial for the radical-based acetylation of U34 and profile the molecular effects of patient-derived mutations. Together, we provide the high-resolution view of human Elongator and reveal its detailed mechanism of action.

It takes two to tRNAgo.

In this issue of Structure, Sievers et al.1 gain important insights into the human tRNA guanine transglycosylase QTRT1/2. The study presents a cryo-EM reconstruction of the inhibited human heterodimer in complex with human tRNAAsp, which represents the first snapshot of a eukaryotic TGT in complex with its full-length tRNA substrate.

Conserved structures and dynamics in 5'-proximal regions of Betacoronavirus RNA genomes.

Betacoronaviruses are a genus within the Coronaviridae family of RNA viruses. They are capable of infecting vertebrates and causing epidemics as well as global pandemics in humans. Mitigating the threat posed by Betacoronaviruses requires an understanding of their molecular diversity. The development of novel antivirals hinges on understanding the key regulatory elements within the viral RNA genomes, in particular the 5'-proximal region, which is pivotal for viral protein synthesis. Using a combination of cryo-electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, chemical probing, and computational modeling, we determined the structures of 5'-proximal regions in RNA genomes of Betacoronaviruses from four subgenera: OC43-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, and Rousettus bat-CoV. We obtained cryo-electron microscopy maps and determined atomic-resolution models for the stem-loop-5 (SL5) region at the translation start site and found that despite low sequence similarity and variable length of the helical elements it exhibits a remarkable structural conservation. Atomic force microscopy imaging revealed a common domain organization and a dynamic arrangement of structural elements connected with flexible linkers across all four Betacoronavirus subgenera. Together, these results reveal common features of a critical regulatory region shared between different Betacoronavirus RNA genomes, which may allow targeting of these RNAs by broad-spectrum antiviral therapeutics.

Modulation of translational decoding by m6A modification of mRNA.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is an abundant, dynamic mRNA modification that regulates key steps of cellular mRNA metabolism. m6A in the mRNA coding regions inhibits translation elongation. Here, we show how m6A modulates decoding in the bacterial translation system using a combination of rapid kinetics, smFRET and single-particle cryo-EM. We show that, while the modification does not impair the initial binding of aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosome, in the presence of m6A fewer ribosomes complete the decoding process due to the lower stability of the complexes and enhanced tRNA drop-off. The mRNA codon adopts a π-stacked codon conformation that is remodeled upon aminoacyl-tRNA binding. m6A does not exclude canonical codon-anticodon geometry, but favors alternative more dynamic conformations that are rejected by the ribosome. These results highlight how modifications outside the Watson-Crick edge can still interfere with codon-anticodon base pairing and complex recognition by the ribosome, thereby modulating the translational efficiency of modified mRNAs.

Ncs2* mediates in vivo virulence of pathogenic yeast through sulphur modification of cytoplasmic transfer RNA.

Fungal pathogens threaten ecosystems and human health. Understanding the molecular basis of their virulence is key to develop new treatment strategies. Here, we characterize NCS2*, a point mutation identified in a clinical baker's yeast isolate. Ncs2 is essential for 2-thiolation of tRNA and the NCS2* mutation leads to increased thiolation at body temperature. NCS2* yeast exhibits enhanced fitness when grown at elevated temperatures or when exposed to oxidative stress, inhibition of nutrient signalling, and cell-wall stress. Importantly, Ncs2* alters the interaction and stability of the thiolase complex likely mediated by nucleotide binding. The absence of 2-thiolation abrogates the in vivo virulence of pathogenic baker's yeast in infected mice. Finally, hypomodification triggers changes in colony morphology and hyphae formation in the common commensal pathogen Candida albicans resulting in decreased virulence in a human cell culture model. These findings demonstrate that 2-thiolation of tRNA acts as a key mediator of fungal virulence and reveal new mechanistic insights into the function of the highly conserved tRNA-thiolase complex.

The diverse structural modes of tRNA binding and recognition.

tRNAs are short noncoding RNAs responsible for decoding mRNA codon triplets, delivering correct amino acids to the ribosome, and mediating polypeptide chain formation. Due to their key roles during translation, tRNAs have a highly conserved shape and large sets of tRNAs are present in all living organisms. Regardless of sequence variability, all tRNAs fold into a relatively rigid three-dimensional L-shaped structure. The conserved tertiary organization of canonical tRNA arises through the formation of two orthogonal helices, consisting of the acceptor and anticodon domains. Both elements fold independently to stabilize the overall structure of tRNAs through intramolecular interactions between the D- and T-arm. During tRNA maturation, different modifying enzymes posttranscriptionally attach chemical groups to specific nucleotides, which not only affect translation elongation rates but also restrict local folding processes and confer local flexibility when required. The characteristic structural features of tRNAs are also employed by various maturation factors and modification enzymes to assure the selection, recognition, and positioning of specific sites within the substrate tRNAs. The cellular functional repertoire of tRNAs continues to extend well beyond their role in translation, partly, due to the expanding pool of tRNA-derived fragments. Here, we aim to summarize the most recent developments in the field to understand how three-dimensional structure affects the canonical and noncanonical functions of tRNA.

Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay (EMSA) and Microscale Thermophoresis (MST) Methods to Measure Interactions Between tRNAs and Their Modifying Enzymes.

The Elongator complex is a unique tRNA acetyltransferase; it was initially annotated as a protein acetyltransferase, but in-depth biochemical analyses revealed its genuine function as a tRNA modifier. The substrate recognition and binding of the Elongator is mainly mediated by its catalytic Elp3 subunit. In this chapter, we describe protocols to generate fluorescently labeled RNAs and outline the principles underlying electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) and microscale thermophoresis (MST). These two methods allow qualitative and quantitative examinations of the binding affinity of various tRNAs toward the homologs of Elp3 from various organisms. The rather qualitative results from EMSA analyses can be nicely complemented by MST measurements allowing precise determination of the dissociation constant (KD). We also provide detailed notes for users to mitigate potential ambiguities and technical pitfalls during the procedures.

A novel ELP1 mutation impairs the function of the Elongator complex and causes a severe neurodevelopmental phenotype.

BACKGROUND: Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are heterogeneous, debilitating conditions that include motor and cognitive disability and social deficits. The genetic factors underlying the complex phenotype of NDDs remain to be elucidated. Accumulating evidence suggest that the Elongator complex plays a role in NDDs, given that patient-derived mutations in its ELP2, ELP3, ELP4 and ELP6 subunits have been associated with these disorders. Pathogenic variants in its largest subunit ELP1 have been previously found in familial dysautonomia and medulloblastoma, with no link to NDDs affecting primarily the central nervous system. METHODS: Clinical investigation included patient history and physical, neurological and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examination. A novel homozygous likely pathogenic ELP1 variant was identified by whole-genome sequencing. Functional studies included in silico analysis of the mutated ELP1 in the context of the holo-complex, production and purification of the ELP1 harbouring the identified mutation and in vitro analyses using microscale thermophoresis for tRNA binding assay and acetyl-CoA hydrolysis assay. Patient fibroblasts were harvested for tRNA modification analysis using HPLC coupled to mass spectrometry. RESULTS: We report a novel missense mutation in the ELP1 identified in two siblings with intellectual disability and global developmental delay. We show that the mutation perturbs the ability of ELP123 to bind tRNAs and compromises the function of the Elongator in vitro and in human cells. CONCLUSION: Our study expands the mutational spectrum of ELP1 and its association with different neurodevelopmental conditions and provides a specific target for genetic counselling.

Cryo-EM structure of human eIF5A-DHS complex reveals the molecular basis of hypusination-associated neurodegenerative disorders.

Hypusination is a unique post-translational modification of the eukaryotic translation factor 5A (eIF5A) that is essential for overcoming ribosome stalling at polyproline sequence stretches. The initial step of hypusination, the formation of deoxyhypusine, is catalyzed by deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS), however, the molecular details of the DHS-mediated reaction remained elusive. Recently, patient-derived variants of DHS and eIF5A have been linked to rare neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we present the cryo-EM structure of the human eIF5A-DHS complex at 2.8 Å resolution and a crystal structure of DHS trapped in the key reaction transition state. Furthermore, we show that disease-associated DHS variants influence the complex formation and hypusination efficiency. Hence, our work dissects the molecular details of the deoxyhypusine synthesis reaction and reveals how clinically-relevant mutations affect this crucial cellular process.

3-Mercaptopyruvate sulfur transferase is a protein persulfidase.

Protein S-persulfidation (P-SSH) is recognized as a common posttranslational modification. It occurs under basal conditions and is often observed to be elevated under stress conditions. However, the mechanism(s) by which proteins are persulfidated inside cells have remained unclear. Here we report that 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfur transferase (MPST) engages in direct protein-to-protein transpersulfidation reactions beyond its previously known protein substrates thioredoxin and MOCS3/Uba4, associated with H2S generation and transfer RNA thiolation, respectively. We observe that depletion of MPST in human cells lowers overall intracellular protein persulfidation levels and identify a subset of proteins whose persulfidation depends on MPST. The predicted involvement of these proteins in the adaptation to stress responses supports the notion that MPST-dependent protein persulfidation promotes cytoprotective functions. The observation of MPST-independent protein persulfidation suggests that other protein persulfidases remain to be identified.

High-resolution cryo-EM structures of plant cytochrome b6f at work.

Plants use solar energy to power cellular metabolism. The oxidation of plastoquinol and reduction of plastocyanin by cytochrome b6f (Cyt b6f) is known as one of the key steps of photosynthesis, but the catalytic mechanism in the plastoquinone oxidation site (Qp) remains elusive. Here, we describe two high-resolution cryo-EM structures of the spinach Cyt b6f homodimer with endogenous plastoquinones and in complex with plastocyanin. Three plastoquinones are visible and line up one after another head to tail near Qp in both monomers, indicating the existence of a channel in each monomer. Therefore, quinones appear to flow through Cyt b6f in one direction, transiently exposing the redox-active ring of quinone during catalysis. Our work proposes an unprecedented one-way traffic model that explains efficient quinol oxidation during photosynthesis and respiration.

Cryo-EM structure of the fully assembled Elongator complex.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are essential to decode messenger RNA codons during protein synthesis. All known tRNAs are heavily modified at multiple positions through post-transcriptional addition of chemical groups. Modifications in the tRNA anticodons are directly influencing ribosome decoding and dynamics during translation elongation and are crucial for maintaining proteome integrity. In eukaryotes, wobble uridines are modified by Elongator, a large and highly conserved macromolecular complex. Elongator consists of two subcomplexes, namely Elp123 containing the enzymatically active Elp3 subunit and the associated Elp456 hetero-hexamer. The structure of the fully assembled complex and the function of the Elp456 subcomplex have remained elusive. Here, we show the cryo-electron microscopy structure of yeast Elongator at an overall resolution of 4.3 Å. We validate the obtained structure by complementary mutational analyses in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we determined various structures of the murine Elongator complex, including the fully assembled mouse Elongator complex at 5.9 Å resolution. Our results confirm the structural conservation of Elongator and its intermediates among eukaryotes. Furthermore, we complement our analyses with the biochemical characterization of the assembled human Elongator. Our results provide the molecular basis for the assembly of Elongator and its tRNA modification activity in eukaryotes.

The multi-subunit Elongator complex mediates the addition of a carboxymethyl group to wobble uridines in eukaryotic tRNAs. This tRNA modification is crucial to preserve the integrity of cellular proteomes and to protects us against severe neurodegenerative diseases. Elongator is organized in two distinct modules (i) the larger Elp123 subcomplex that binds and modifies the suitable tRNA substrate and (ii) the smaller Elp456 subcomplex that assists the release of the modified tRNA. The presented cryo-EM structures of Elongator show that the assemblies are very dynamic and undergo conformational rearrangements at consecutive steps of the process. Last but not least, the study provides a detailed reaction scheme and shows that the architecture of Elongator is highly conserved from yeast to mammals.

Elongator and the role of its subcomplexes in human diseases.

The Elongator complex was initially identified in yeast, and a variety of distinct cellular functions have been assigned to the complex. In the last decade, several research groups focussed on dissecting its structure, tRNA modification activity and role in translation regulation. Recently, Elongator emerged as a crucial factor for various human diseases, and its involvement has triggered a strong interest in the complex from numerous clinical groups. The Elongator complex is highly conserved among eukaryotes, with all six subunits (Elp1-6) contributing to its stability and function. Yet, recent studies have shown that the two subcomplexes, namely the catalytic Elp123 and accessory Elp456, may have distinct roles in the development of different neuronal subtypes. This Commentary aims to provide a brief overview and new perspectives for more systematic efforts to explore the functions of the Elongator in health and disease.

Destabilization of mutated human PUS3 protein causes intellectual disability.

Pseudouridine (Ψ) is an RNA base modification ubiquitously found in many types of RNAs. In humans, the isomerization of uridine is catalyzed by different stand-alone pseudouridine synthases (PUS). Genomic mutations in the human pseudouridine synthase 3 gene (PUS3) have been identified in patients with neurodevelopmental disorders. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms that cause the disease phenotypes remain elusive. Here, we utilize exome sequencing to identify genomic variants that lead to a homozygous amino acid substitution (p.[(Tyr71Cys)];[(Tyr71Cys)]) in human PUS3 of two affected individuals and a compound heterozygous substitution (p.[(Tyr71Cys)];[(Ile299Thr)]) in a third patient. We obtain wild-type and mutated full-length human recombinant PUS3 proteins and characterize the enzymatic activity in vitro. Unexpectedly, we find that the p.Tyr71Cys substitution neither affect tRNA binding nor pseudouridylation activity in vitro, but strongly impair the thermostability profile of PUS3, while the p.Ile299Thr mutation causes protein aggregation. Concomitantly, we observe that the PUS3 protein levels as well as the level of PUS3-dependent Ψ levels are strongly reduced in fibroblasts derived from all three patients. In summary, our results directly illustrate the link between the identified PUS3 variants and reduced Ψ levels in the patient cells, providing a molecular explanation for the observed clinical phenotypes.

E2/E3-independent ubiquitin-like protein conjugation by Urm1 is directly coupled to cysteine persulfidation.

Post-translational modifications by ubiquitin-like proteins (UBLs) are essential for nearly all cellular processes. Ubiquitin-related modifier 1 (Urm1) is a unique UBL, which plays a key role in tRNA anticodon thiolation as a sulfur carrier protein (SCP) and is linked to the noncanonical E1 enzyme Uba4 (ubiquitin-like protein activator 4). While Urm1 has also been observed to conjugate to target proteins like other UBLs, the molecular mechanism of its attachment remains unknown. Here, we reconstitute the covalent attachment of thiocarboxylated Urm1 to various cellular target proteins in vitro, revealing that, unlike other known UBLs, this process is E2/E3-independent and requires oxidative stress. Furthermore, we present the crystal structures of the peroxiredoxin Ahp1 before and after the covalent attachment of Urm1. Surprisingly, we show that urmylation is accompanied by the transfer of sulfur to cysteine residues in the target proteins, also known as cysteine persulfidation. Our results illustrate the role of the Uba4-Urm1 system as a key evolutionary link between prokaryotic SCPs and the UBL modifications observed in modern eukaryotes.

Functional divergence of the two Elongator subcomplexes during neurodevelopment.

The highly conserved Elongator complex is a translational regulator that plays a critical role in neurodevelopment, neurological diseases, and brain tumors. Numerous clinically relevant variants have been reported in the catalytic Elp123 subcomplex, while no missense mutations in the accessory subcomplex Elp456 have been described. Here, we identify ELP4 and ELP6 variants in patients with developmental delay, epilepsy, intellectual disability, and motor dysfunction. We determine the structures of human and murine Elp456 subcomplexes and locate the mutated residues. We show that patient-derived mutations in Elp456 affect the tRNA modification activity of Elongator in vitro as well as in human and murine cells. Modeling the pathogenic variants in mice recapitulates the clinical features of the patients and reveals neuropathology that differs from the one caused by previously characterized Elp123 mutations. Our study demonstrates a direct correlation between Elp4 and Elp6 mutations, reduced Elongator activity, and neurological defects. Foremost, our data indicate previously unrecognized differences of the Elp123 and Elp456 subcomplexes for individual tRNA species, in different cell types and in different key steps during the neurodevelopment of higher organisms.

Molecular insights into RNA recognition and gene regulation by the TRIM-NHL protein Mei-P26.

The TRIM-NHL protein Meiotic P26 (Mei-P26) acts as a regulator of cell fate in Drosophila Its activity is critical for ovarian germline stem cell maintenance, differentiation of oocytes, and spermatogenesis. Mei-P26 functions as a post-transcriptional regulator of gene expression; however, the molecular details of how its NHL domain selectively recognizes and regulates its mRNA targets have remained elusive. Here, we present the crystal structure of the Mei-P26 NHL domain at 1.6 Å resolution and identify key amino acids that confer substrate specificity and distinguish Mei-P26 from closely related TRIM-NHL proteins. Furthermore, we identify mRNA targets of Mei-P26 in cultured Drosophila cells and show that Mei-P26 can act as either a repressor or activator of gene expression on different RNA targets. Our work reveals the molecular basis of RNA recognition by Mei-P26 and the fundamental functional differences between otherwise very similar TRIM-NHL proteins.

Urm1, not quite a ubiquitin-like modifier?

Ubiquitin related modifier 1 (Urm1) is a unique eukaryotic member of the ubiquitin-fold (UbF) protein family and conserved from yeast to humans. Urm1 is dual-functional, acting both as a sulfur carrier for thiolation of tRNA anticodons and as a protein modifier in a lysine-directed Ub-like conjugation also known as urmylation. Although Urm1 conjugation coincides with oxidative stress and targets proteins like 2-Cys peroxiredoxins from yeast (Ahp1) and fly (Prx5), it was unclear how urmylation proceeds molecularly and whether it is affected by the activity of these antioxidant enzymes. An in-depth study of Ahp1 urmylation in yeast from our laboratory (Brachmann et al., 2020) uncovered that promiscuous lysine target sites and specific redox requirements determine the Urm1 acceptor activity of the peroxiredoxin. The results clearly show that the dimer interface and the 2-Cys based redox-active centers of Ahp1 are affecting the Urm1 conjugation reaction. Together with in vivo assays demonstrating that high organic peroxide concentrations can prevent Ahp1 from being urmylated, Brachmann et al. provide insights into a potential link between Urm1 utilization and oxidant defense of cells. Here, we highlight these major findings and discuss wider implications with regards to an emerging link between Urm1 conjugation and redox biology. Moreover, from these studies we propose to redefine our perspective on Urm1 and the molecular nature of urmylation, a post-translational conjugation that may not be that ubiquitin-like after all.

Pseudouridines in RNAs: switching atoms means shifting paradigms.

The structure, stability, and function of various coding and noncoding RNAs are influenced by chemical modifications. Pseudouridine (Ψ) is one of the most abundant post-transcriptional RNA base modifications and has been detected at individual positions in tRNAs, rRNAs, mRNAs, and snRNAs, which are referred to as Ψ-sites. By allowing formation of additional bonds with neighboring atoms, Ψ strengthens RNA-RNA and RNA-protein interactions. Although many aspects of the underlying modification reactions remain unclear, the advent of new transcriptome-wide methods to quantitatively detect Ψ-sites has recently changed our perception of the functional roles and importance of Ψ. For instance, it is now clear that the occurrence of Ψs appears to be directly linked to the lifetime and the translation efficiency of a given mRNA molecule. Furthermore, the administration of Ψ-containing RNAs reduces innate immune responses, which appears strikingly advantageous for the development of generations of mRNA-based vaccines. In this review, we aim to comprehensively summarize recent discoveries that highlight the impact of Ψ on various types of RNAs and outline possible novel biomedical applications of Ψ.