Aesthetic Considerations in Extremity Salvage and Reconstruction.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After studying this article, the participant should be able to: 1. Have an in-depth understanding of the functional and aesthetic requirements of lower extremity reconstruction. 2. Describe the considerations for achieving an optimal aesthetic outcome in the primary reconstruction settings. 3. Describe modalities of secondary flap revision for achieving an optimal aesthetic outcome. SUMMARY: Significant advancements have been made in the management of lower extremity reconstruction since Dr. Taylor's seminal case in 1973. Improvements in our understanding of vascular anatomy and evolution of microsurgical techniques have allowed for an ever-increasing array of free tissue transfer options for lower extremity reconstruction. The resulting expertise has engendered a paradigm shift toward the reconstructive elevator approach, with increased emphasis on cosmetic results. In the primary setting, aesthetic considerations play an important role in precoverage wound preparation, flap selection, and harvest technique, with the goal of achieving excellent like-with-like reconstruction at the time of initial surgery. Flap selection should be made to best match the three-dimensional architecture of the wound, and take into account the defect thickness, flap thickness, flap composition, and pedicle length. Primary flap thinning and harvest in the superficial fascial plane has been shown to be an effective modality to address excess adiposity and improve contour. Despite these efforts, secondary procedures are often required to optimize the limb's final appearance and functional outcomes, particularly in the foot and ankle region. These include debulking, liposuction, and staged excisions. As the field of limb salvage keeps evolving, aesthetics will continue to play an important role in extremity reconstruction planning and execution.

Canadian Trends in Free Flap Management for Microsurgical Lower Limb Reconstruction.

Introduction: Free tissue transfers have become a mainstay in lower limb salvage, allowing safe and reliable reconstruction after trauma, tumor extirpation, and complex wounds. The optimal perioperative (PO) management of these flaps remains controversial. This study aims to assess the current state of practice among Canadian microsurgeons. Methods: Sixty-four Canadian microsurgeons were approached to complete an online questionnaire regarding their PO management of fasciocutaneous free flaps used for lower limb reconstruction. Trends in dangling timing and duration, use of venous couplers, compressive garments, thromboprophylaxis, and surgeons' satisfaction with their protocol were assessed. Results: Twenty-eight surgeons responded. Fifty-seven percent did not have a specific mobilization protocol. Dangling was mainly initiated on postoperative days 5 to 6 (44%). The most common protocol duration was 5 to 6 days (43%). The concern for prolonged venous pooling was the main reason for delay of dangling (71%). Compressive garments were placed routinely by 12 surgeons (43%) with 20% starting before dangling, 46% with dangling, and 33% after dangling. Venous couplers were routinely used by 24 surgeons (85.7%). Trends in management were influenced by previous training in 53.6% of cases (vs evidence-based medicine 7.1%). Although 89.3% were satisfied with their approach, 92.8% would consider changing practice if higher-level evidence was available. Conclusions: The majority of Canadian microsurgeons initiate dangling early and utilize venous couplers. However, the use of compressive garments is limited. Trends in management are largely based on personal experience. Nearly all surgeons would consider changing their practice if higher-level evidence was available.

Introduction: Les transferts de tissus libres sont devenus une clé de voûte du sauvetage du membre inférieur, permettant une reconstruction sûre et fiable après un traumatisme, l'extirpation d'une tumeur et des blessures complexes. La gestion périopératoire optimale (PO) de ces volets reste controversée. Cette étude vise à évaluer l'état actuel des pratiques parmi les chirurgiens canadiens pratiquant la microchirurgie. Méthodes: Soixante-quatre spécialistes canadiens de microchirurgie ont été approchés et il leur a été demandé de répondre à un questionnaire en ligne sur leur gestion PO des lambeaux fascio-cutanés libres utilisés pour la reconstruction du membre inférieur. Les tendances concernant des échéances et des durées du protocole de jambe pendante, l'utilisation de coupleurs veineux, les vêtements compressifs, la thromboprophylaxie et la satisfaction des chirurgiens envers leur protocole ont été évaluées. Résultats: Vingt-huit chirurgiens ont répondu. Cinquante-sept pour cent (57 %) n'avaient pas de protocole de mobilisation précis. Le protocole de jambe pendante sans appui a été instauré aux jours postopératoires 5 ou 6 (44 %). La durée la plus courante du protocole était de 5 à 6 jours (43 %). La préoccupation d'une accumulation prolongée de sang veineux était la principale raison pour retarder l'exercice de jambe pendante (71 %). Douze (12) chirurgiens (43 %) ont mis en place de manière régulière des vêtements compressifs: 20 % d'entre eux ont commencé avant de laisser pendre le membre, 46 % en même temps et 33 % après avoir laissé pendre le membre. Des coupleurs veineux ont été utilisés en routine par 24 chirurgiens (85,7 %). Les tendances en matière de gestion ont été influencées par la formation antérieure dans 53,6 % des cas (contre la médecine fondée sur des données probantes: 7,1 %). Même si 89,3 % des chirurgiens étaient satisfaits de leur approche, 92,8 % d'entre eux envisageraient de modifier leur pratique si des données probantes de plus haut niveau étaient disponibles. Conclusions: La majorité des spécialistes canadiens de la microchirurgie instaurent précocement la mise en décharge hors du lit du membre inférieur et utilisent des coupleurs veineux. Cependant, l'utilisation de vêtements compressifs est limitée. Les tendances en matière de gestion reposent largement sur l'expérience personnelle. Presque tous les chirurgiens envisageraient de modifier leur pratique si des données probantes de plus haut niveau étaient disponibles.

Comparing Minor Hand Procedures Performed with or without the Use of a Tourniquet: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Carpal tunnel syndrome and trigger finger are two of the most common conditions treated by the hand surgeon. During these procedures, a tourniquet is often used to minimize bleeding and improve visualization of the operative field. However, it may be associated with pain and discomfort. To date, there are few prospective studies investigating the safety and patient-centered outcomes of tourniquet-free minor hand procedures. METHODS: This is a randomized controlled trial comparing patients undergoing open carpal tunnel or trigger finger release with or without the use of a tourniquet. Perioperative subjective patient experience was investigated for both techniques. This was measured based on a numerical rating scale for pain, anxiety, and overall satisfaction. In addition, this was an equivalence trial in terms of operative time, bleeding scores, and perioperative complication rates. RESULTS: A total of 67 patients were recruited. Both groups were similar with respect to distribution of age, sex, handedness, anti-platelet use, and tobacco use. Median scores for operative time, anxiety, and overall satisfaction were comparable between the 2 groups. With regard to patient discomfort, median scores were significantly higher in the tourniquet group when compared with the no tourniquet group (3.58 versus 1.68, respectively, P = 0.02). Bleeding scores for the tourniquet group were significantly lower than for the no tourniquet group (1.14 versus 1.90, respectively, P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The application of wide awake local anesthesia no tourniquet (WALANT) in minor hand surgery procedures has been shown to decrease tourniquet-associated discomfort, improving perioperative patient experience. Additionally, it demonstrated the noninferiority of the tourniquet-free technique with respect to operative time and the rate of perioperative complications.

Face Transplant: Current Update and First Canadian Experience.

SUMMARY: Facial vascularized composite allotransplantation has emerged as a groundbreaking reconstructive solution for patients with severely disfiguring facial injuries. The authors report on the first Canadian face transplant. A 64-year-old man sustained a gunshot wound, which resulted in extensive midface bony and soft-tissue damage involving the lower two-thirds of the face. In May of 2018, he underwent a face transplant consisting of Le Fort III and bilateral sagittal split osteotomies in addition to skin from the lower two-thirds of the face and neck. Virtual surgical planning was used to fabricate osteotomy guides and stereolithographic models. Microsurgical anastomoses of the facial (three branches) and infraorbital nerves were performed bilaterally. At 18-month follow-up, the aesthetic outcome was excellent. Partial restoration of light touch sensation had been observed over the majority of the allograft. Although significantly affected, animation, speech, mastication, and deglutition were continuously improving with intensive therapy. Nevertheless, the patient was now tracheostomy and gastrostomy free. Despite these limitations, he reported a high degree of satisfaction with the procedure and had reintegrated into the community. Four grade I episodes of acute rejection with evidence of endotheliitis were successfully treated. Postoperative complications were mainly infectious, including mucormycosis of the left thigh, treated with surgical resection and antifungal therapy. Undoubtedly, immunosuppression represents the greatest obstacle in the field and limits the indications for facial vascularized composite allotransplantation. Continuous long-term follow-up is mandatory for surveillance of immunosuppression-related complications and functional assessment of the graft.

Facial Transplantation in a Nationalized Health System: The Canadian Experience.

Facial transplantation (FT) is recognized as the ultimate reconstruction for severely disfigured patients. The substantial cost of these procedures in a nationalized health system has not been extensively published. The first Canadian FT performed in May 2018 was a great opportunity to address this subject and evaluate the viability of such a program. METHODS: A detailed patient chart review was performed and a cost per unit approach was used to estimate the procedure cost. The preoperative, operative, and the postoperative periods up to 1-year after the surgery were analyzed. Financial support from private sponsors and Hospital Fund donations were considered. The literature on international FT and national solid organ transplantation was reviewed. RESULTS: The overall 1-year cost was estimated at $440,224 (2018 CAD). The costs are explained by a long hospital length of stay, costly immunosuppressive therapy, and high immunosuppression-related complications. Those findings are consistent with international FT literature. The societal impact of the surgery was minimized with a $36,921 (2018 CAD) grant obtained from an external contributor. Interestingly, the hospital foundation sustained a 794% increase in donations ($1,787,148; 2019 CAD) the year following the surgery. CONCLUSION: Our experience confirmed that the combination of private funding, with positive goodwill and hospital donations, is a workable model for innovative surgery in the setting of a nationalized health system with financial restrictions.

The Use of Virtual Surgical Planning for Reduction Cranioplasty.

Hydrocephalic macrocephaly may occur as a result of untreated hydrocephalus. Reduction cranioplasty is the treatment of choice for these patients when the weight of their head interferes with normal development and negatively impacts quality of life. However, this procedure has several associated risks, including prolonged anesthesia, significant blood loss, and death. Virtual surgical planning (VSP) has been shown to be a useful adjunct for orthognathic and craniofacial surgery. The following report details the application and advantages of this technology in the setting of a reduction cranioplasty. We report the case of a 2-year-old girl with severe hydrocephalic macrocephaly who underwent a reduction cranioplasty guided by VSP with computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM). Prefabricated cutting guides and a concave assembly bowl were used for precise fixation of bony segments. Our patient underwent a successful reduction cranioplasty using VSP and CAD/CAM. This technology allowed precise remodeling of the cranial vault with minimal bony gaps in the final construct. Head circumference and intracranial volume were reduced from 70 cm and 4,575 cm3 to 62 cm and 2,645 cm3, respectively. VSP with CAD/CAM can serve as a useful adjunct in complex cases of cranioplasty allowing for an increase in the precision, the efficacy, and the esthetic result.

Current Trends in Management of Nonsyndromic Unilateral Coronal Craniosynostosis: A Cross-sectional Survey.

BACKGROUND: Although the natural history of nonsyndromic unilateral coronal craniosynostosis has been extensively described, optimal management remains controversial due to lack of Level 1 evidence. This study aims to assess the current state of practice among craniofacial surgeons. METHODS: Ninety-four craniofacial surgeons were approached to complete a survey consisting of 15 questions. Data were collected assessing surgeons' primary surgical indication, timing of intervention, preoperative imaging, and choice of technique for patients presenting with nonsyndromic unilateral coronal craniosynostosis. Choice of technique and timing of intervention in case of recurrence were also investigated. RESULTS: After 5 mailings, the response rate was 61%. The combination of both appearance and raised intracranial pressure was the primary indication for treatment for 73.2% of surgeons. Preoperative CT scan of the skull was "always" performed by 70.1% of respondents. Open surgical management was most commonly performed at 8-10 months of age (38.6%). Bilateral frontal craniectomy with remodeling of the supraorbital bandeau and frontal bone was the most common choice of procedure (84.2%). In case of mild to moderate and moderate to severe recurrences at 1 year of age, 89.5% and 47.4% of surgeons opted for conservative management, respectively. Optimal timing for repeat cranioplasty was after 4 years of age (65.5%). Overall, 43.4% quoted lack of evidence as the greatest obstacle to clinical decision-making when dealing with unilateral synostosis. CONCLUSION: This survey exposes the lack of consensus and the disparity of opinion among craniofacial surgeons regarding the management of nonsyndromic coronal synostosis, particularly in the setting of recurrence.

A Prospective Study Investigating Fistula Rate Following Primary Palatoplasty Using Acellular Dermal Matrix.

BACKGROUND: Acellular dermal matrix (ADM) has been described as an adjunct in primary cleft palate repair to reduce the fistula rate in several retrospective studies (level III or lower); however, current data are insufficient to definitively conclude its efficacy for this purpose. The goal of the present study was to provide prospective, higher level of evidence data investigating the effect of ADM on fistula rate following primary palatoplasty. METHODS: A prospective clinical trial was conducted in which ADM was used uniformly in all primary cleft palate repairs that met inclusion criteria. For comparison, a matched control group was identified (retrospectively) from the same center/surgeon's database. Primary outcome was the rate of palatal fistula formation. Secondary outcomes included bleeding, infection, and delayed healing. RESULTS: A total of 130 patients were included in the analysis consisting of 65 in both the study and control groups. There were no statistically significant differences in patient demographics or cleft /surgical characteristics. The results demonstrated a fistula rate of 1.5% in the study group versus 12.3% in the control group (P = 0.03). The other complications (infection, bleeding, delayed healing) were similar between the groups. CONCLUSION: The study provides the highest level of evidence currently available (level II, prospective data) investigating the effect of ADM on fistula rate following primary palatoplasty. The results demonstrate a low overall fistula rate (1.5%) and suggest there may be a clinically significant reduction in fistula formation associated with the routine use of ADM in all primary palate repairs.

Do Bacteria and Biofilm Play a Role in Double-Capsule Formation around Macrotextured Implants?

BACKGROUND: The double capsule is a complication mostly described in aggressive macrotextured implants. Mechanical shear stress applied onto an immature periprosthetic capsule has been linked to their formation. The authors aim to demonstrate the role of bacterial phenotype and biofilm in the development of the double capsule. METHODS: Seven double capsules formed at the interface of macrotextured breast expander implants were studied using scanning electron microscopy. Two samples for each surface of the inner capsule layer (the prosthesis interface and the intercapsular space) were analyzed for bacteria cell size, bacterial density, and biofilm deposition. RESULTS: Although all routine bacterial cultures were negative, the prosthesis interface had both higher bacteria load and biofilm deposition compared with the intercapsular space (Mann-Whitney U test, p = 0.004 and p = 0.008, respectively). Moreover, bacteria cell sizes were significantly smaller at the prosthesis interface in six of seven samples. Comparison of bacteria density and biofilm dispersion showed an increase of biofilm extracellular matrix deposition over 2000 cells/mm (linear regression, p = 0.0025). These results indicate a common trend among bacteria species. CONCLUSIONS: Bacterial expression between the different surfaces of the double capsule displays significant differences; bacteria at the prosthesis interface are mostly in a biofilm state, whereas they demonstrate a planktonic phenotype at the intercapsular space. When a sufficient amount of bacteria are present at a specific location, quorum sensing may trigger a biofilm phenotypic switch in planktonic bacteria cells. Biofilm formation may alter capsule formation through immune response, thereby weakening capsule strength and facilitating extracellular matrix delamination and double-capsule formation. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, V.

Endoscopic Versus Open Cubital Tunnel Release: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Several surgical techniques exist for treatment of cubital tunnel syndrome. Endoscopic cubital tunnel release (ECTuR) has been recently reported as a promising minimally invasive technique. This study aims to compare outcomes and complications of open cubital tunnel release (OCTuR) and ECTuR in the treatment of idiopathic cubital tunnel syndrome. METHODS: A systematic review of the literature (1980-2014) identified 118 citations. Studies including adults with idiopathic cubital tunnel treated exclusively by ECTuR or OCTuR were included. Outcomes of interest were postoperative grading, complications, number of reoperations, and the need for intraoperative conversion to another technique. Postoperative outcomes were combined into a uniform scale with 4 categories: "excellent," "good," "fair," and "poor." RESULTS: Twenty studies met the inclusion criteria (17 observational and 3 comparative), representing 425 open and 556 endoscopic decompressions. In the open group, 79.8% experienced "good" or "excellent" results with 12% complication rate and 2.8% reoperation rate. In the endoscopic group, 81.8% experienced "good" or "excellent" results with 9% complication rate and 1.6% reoperation rate. Meta-analysis of 3 comparative studies demonstrated a significantly lower overall complication rate with ECTuR. Subgroup analysis of complications revealed a significantly higher incidence of scar tenderness and elbow pain with OCTuR. CONCLUSIONS: The current study demonstrates similar effectiveness between the endoscopic (ECTuR) and open (OCTuR) techniques for treatment of idiopathic cubital tunnel syndrome with similar outcomes, complication profiles, and reoperation rates.

Vascularized proximal fibula epiphyseal transfer for distal radius reconstruction in children: A systematic review.

PURPOSE: Reconstruction of the distal radius in children is cumbersome, requiring simultaneous restoration of joint function and axial growth. Vascularized proximal fibular epiphyseal transfers (VFET) have been popularized over non-vascularized transfers and prosthesis. This systematic review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of VFET and its associated complications. METHODS: Electronic database of PubMed MEDLINE was searched between 1970 and 2014. Studies reporting VFET for distal radius reconstruction in children (<15 years old) with clear reporting of technique (vascular pedicle) and objective outcome measures were included. Outcomes of interest were rate of graft growth, bone union and complications. A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test was used to compare growth rates between pedicle types. RESULTS: Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria, representing 25 patients. Pedicles used were anterior tibial (44%), peroneal (16%), or bi-pedicled (40%) anastomosed in antegrade (64%) or reverse flow (36%) fashion. Among all pedicle types, best results were achieved using anterior tibial artery with reversed flow, yielding average growth rate of 0.83 cm/year (P = 0.01). Recipient complications included four premature epiphyseal plate closures, a flap loss, and six wrist radial deviations. Donor complications included six common peroneal nerve palsies (five temporary, a permanent), and a talocalcaneal instability. Overall complication rates between pedicle types were comparable (P = 0.062). CONCLUSION: VFET may be a surgical option capable of restoring joint function and axial growth potential in select patients. The reverse flow technique based on the anterior tibial artery may result in superior outcomes. However, the overall complication rate is high and permanent peroneal nerve palsy may result. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 36:705-711, 2016.

Conservative mastectomies and immediate reconstruction with the use of ADMs.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, a novel approach to immediate breast reconstruction has been introduced with the advent of acellular dermal matrix (ADM). In the setting of conservative mastectomies where the native skin envelope is preserved, placement of ADM at the lower pole in continuity with the pectoralis major muscle (PMM) provides additional support, allowing direct-to-implant breast reconstruction. The following manuscript presents the senior author's experience with ADM-assisted reconstruction and provides a detailed description of surgical technique along with a comprehensive discussion of patient selection and potential complications. METHODS: A retrospective chart review of patients undergoing direct-to-implant breast reconstruction following skin sparing or nipple sparing mastectomy with the use of ADM (AlloDerm; LifeCell Corp., Branchburg, USA) was conducted at Women's College Hospital in Toronto over a 5-year period [2008-2013]. Demographic data, previous radiation therapy and post-operative complications were recorded. RESULTS: A total of 72 patients representing 119 breasts were identified. Average follow-up was 16 months (range, 3-51 months). Twenty-seven complications were recorded for a complication rate of 22.7% (27/119). Complications included six cases of capsular contracture (Baker III/IV), five cases of red skin syndrome, four cases of rippling, three cases of dehiscence and two cases of seroma. Overall, direct-to-implant reconstruction was successfully completed in 97.5% of breasts (116/119). One case of infection was treated with explantation and conversion to autogenous reconstruction. Two breasts with tissue necrosis or dehiscence had the implants removed and replaced with tissue expanders. Overall reoperation rate was 9.7% (7/72 patients). CONCLUSIONS: ADM assisted direct-to-implant breast reconstruction has been shown to be a safe option for women who are candidates for skin sparing or nipple sparing mastectomies. Judicious patient selection, effective collaboration between the oncologic and reconstructive surgeon, careful evaluation of post-mastectomy skin flaps and precise surgical technique are paramount to the success of this technique.