ABSTRACT
The purpose of this narrative review was to assess the use of nanoparticles (NPs) to deliver radionuclides to targets, focusing on systems that have been tested in pre-clinical and, when available, clinical settings. A literature search was conducted in PubMed and Web of Science databases using the following terms: "radionuclides" AND "liposomes" or "PLGA nanoparticles" or "gold nanoparticles" or "iron oxide nanoparticles" or "silica nanoparticles" or "micelles" or "dendrimers". No filters were applied, apart from a minimum limit of 10 patients enrolled for clinical studies. Data from some significant studies from pre-clinical and clinical settings were retrieved, and we briefly describe the information available. All the selected seven classes of nanoparticles were highly tested in clinical trials, but they all present many drawbacks. Liposomes are the only ones that have been tested for clinical applications, though they have never been commercialized. In conclusion, the application of NPs for imaging has been the object of much interest over the years, albeit mainly in pre-clinical settings. Thus, we think that, based on the current state, radiolabeled NPs must be investigated longer before finding their place in nuclear medicine.
ABSTRACT
Abstract At INFN-LNL (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare- Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro) SPES (Selective Production of Exotic Species), a new facility for the production of radioactive ion beams is being constructed at INFN-LNL (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare - Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro). Radioactive ion beams of neutron-rich nuclei with high purity, in the range of mass between 80 and 160 amu, will be produced by nuclear reactions induced by 40 MeV protons from a cyclotron. The goal of the ISOLPHARM project is to provide a feasibility study for an innovative technology for the production of extremely very high specific activity beta emitting radionuclides as radiopharmaceutical precursors. The ISOL method, adopted in the ISOLPHARM project (a branch of the SPES project), gives the possibility of obtaining pure isobaric beams. In this way, no isotopic contaminations will be present in the beam and afterwards in a proper trapping substrate. The ground-breaking idea of the ISOLPHARM method was granted an International patent (INFN).
Resumen En INFN-LNL (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare - Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro) SPES (Producción selectiva de especies exóticas), se está construyendo una nueva instalación para la producción de haces de iones radiactivos en INFN-LNL (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare - Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro). Se producirán haces de iones radiactivos de núcleos ricos en neutrones con alta pureza, en el rango de masa entre 80 y 160 amu, por reacciones nucleares inducidas por protones de 40 MeV de un ciclotrón. El objetivo del proyecto ISOLPHARM es proporcionar un estudio de viabilidad para una tecnología innovadora para la producción de radionúclidos emisores de beta de actividad específica extremadamente alta como precursores radiofarmacéuticos. El método ISOL, adoptado en el proyecto ISOLPHARM (una rama del proyecto SPES), ofrece la posibilidad de obtener haces isobáricos puros. De esta manera, no habrá contaminaciones isotópicas en el haz y luego en un sustrato de atrapamiento adecuado. La idea pionera del método ISOLPHARM recibió una patente internacional (INFN).
ABSTRACT
Summary The study of heavy ion nuclear reactionis an important tool to observe and disentangle different and competing mechanisms, which may arise in the different energy regimes. In particular, at relatively low bombarding energy, it is quite interesting the comparison between pre-equilibrium and thermal emission of light charged particles from hot nuclear systems [1-6]. Indeed, the nuclear structure of the interacting partners can be strongly correlated to the dynamics, especially at energies close to the Coulomb barrier, and this effect emerges when some nucleons or clusters of nucleons are either emitted or captured. In particular, a major attention has been devoted, in the last years, to the possible observation of cluster structure effects in the competing nuclear reaction mechanisms, especially when fast processes are involved. At this purpose, the four reactions 16O+30Si at 111 MeV, 16O+30Si at 128 MeV, 18O+28Si at 126 MeV, 19F+27Al at 133 MeV have been measured to study the onset of pre-equilibrium in an energy range where, for central collisions, complete fusion is expected to be the predominant mode. Experimental data were collected using the GARFIELD + RCo array [7], fully equipped with digital electronics at the LegnaroNational Laboratories. The comparison between experimental data and different model predictions have been performed: in particular, both dynamical models based either on Stochastic Mean Field (TWINGO) or Anti-symmetrized Molecular Dynamics and fully statistical models (GEMINI++) have been considered. Simulated events are filtered through a software replica of the apparatus, to take into account all possible distortions of the experimental distributions due to the finite size of the apparatus.
Resumen El estudio de la reacción nuclear iónica pesada es una herramienta importante para observar y esclarecer los diferentes mecanismos que compiten entre sí, que pueden surgir en los diferentes regímenes energéticos. En particular, a una energía de bombardeo relativamente baja, es bastante interesante la comparación entre el preequilibrio y la emisión térmica de partículas ligeras cargadas por sistemas nucleares calientes [1-6]. De hecho, la estructura nuclear del grupo que interactúa puede estar fuertemente correlacionada con la dinámica, especialmente en energías cercanas a la barrera de Coulomb, y este efecto surge cuando se emiten o capturan algunos nucleones o grupos de nucleones. En particular, se ha dedicado una gran atención, en los últimos años, a la posible observación de los efectos de la estructura del agrupamiento en los mecanismos de reacción nuclear competitivos, especialmente cuando se trata de procesos rápidos. Para este propósito, las cuatro reacciones 16O + 30Si a 111 MeV, 16O + 30Si a 128 MeV, 18O + 28Si a 126 MeV, 19F + 27Al a 133 MeV se han medido para estudiar el inicio del preequilibrio en un rango de energía en el cual, para colisiones centrales, se espera que la fusión completa sea el modo predominante. Los datos experimentales se recogieron utilizando la matriz GARFIELD + RCo [7], totalmente equipada con electrónica digital en los Laboratorios Nacionales Legnaro. La comparación entre los datos experimentales y las diferentes predicciones de modelos se han llevado a cabo: en particular, se han considerado los modelos dinámicos basados en el Campo Medio Estocástico (TWINGO) o Dinámica Molecular Antisimétrica y modelos completamente estadísticos (GEMINI ++). Los eventos simulados se filtran a través de una réplica de software del aparato, para tener en cuenta todas las posibles distorsiones de las distribuciones experimentales debido al tamaño finito del aparato.
ABSTRACT
Summary SPES (Selective Production of Exotic Species) is the INFN project for a Nuclear Physics facility for the production of Radioactive Ion Beams (RIBs). It is in advanced construction in Legnaro, with several technological innovations and challenges foreseen, comprehensive of new achievements and improvements. SPES will provide mostly neutron-rich exotic beams, derived by the fission fragments (up to 1013fiss/s) produced in the interaction of an intense proton beam (200 μA) on a direct UCx target. Several other targets will be developed, in order to provide users a large beam selection. The expected SPES beam intensities, their quality and, finally, their maximum energies (up to 11 MeV/n for A=130) will permit to perform forefront research in nuclear structure and nuclear dynamics, studying a region of the nuclear chart far from stability. This goal will be reached by coordinating the developments on the accelerator complex and those of up-to-date experimental set-ups.
Resumen SPES (Selective Production of Exotic Species) es el proyecto INFN para una instalación de física nuclear para la producción de haces de iones radiactivos (RIB). Está en construcción avanzada en Legnaro, que prevé varias innovaciones tecnológicas y desafíos, con nuevos logros y mejoras. SPES proporcionará principalmente haces exóticos ricos en neutrones, derivados de los fragmentos de fisión (hasta 1013fisiones/s) producidos en la interacción de un intenso haz de protones (200 μA) con un blanco UCx directo. Se utilizarán diversos blancos para proporcionar a los usuarios una gran selección de haces. Las intensidades esperadas del haz SPES, su calidad y, finalmente, sus energías máximas (hasta 11 MeV/n para A=130) permitirán realizar investigaciones de vanguardia en la estructura nuclear y la dinámica nuclear, estudiando una región del mapa nuclear lejos de la estabilidad. Este objetivo se alcanzará coordinando los desarrollos en el complejo del acelerador con las configuraciones experimentales actualizadas.