Global conservation status of the jawed vertebrate Tree of Life.

Human-driven extinction threatens entire lineages across the Tree of Life. Here we assess the conservation status of jawed vertebrate evolutionary history, using three policy-relevant approaches. First, we calculate an index of threat to overall evolutionary history, showing that we expect to lose 86-150 billion years (11-19%) of jawed vertebrate evolutionary history over the next 50-500 years. Second, we rank jawed vertebrate species by their EDGE scores to identify the highest priorities for species-focused conservation of evolutionary history, finding that chondrichthyans, ray-finned fish and testudines rank highest of all jawed vertebrates. Third, we assess the conservation status of jawed vertebrate families. We found that species within monotypic families are more likely to be threatened and more likely to be in decline than other species. We provide a baseline for the status of families at risk of extinction to catalyse conservation action. This work continues a trend of highlighting neglected groups-such as testudines, crocodylians, amphibians and chondrichthyans-as conservation priorities from a phylogenetic perspective.

Allergic rhinitis: Review of the diagnosis and management: South African Allergic Rhinitis Working Group.

BACKGROUND: Allergic rhinitis (AR) has a significant impact on the community as a whole with regard to quality of life and its relationship to allergic multi-morbidities. Appropriate diagnosis, treatment and review of the efficacy of interventions can ameliorate these effects. Yet, the importance of AR is often overlooked, and appropriate therapy is neglected. The availability of effective medications and knowledge as to management are often lacking in both public and private health systems. METHODS: This review is based on a comprehensive literature search and detailed discussions by the South African Allergic Rhinitis Working Group (SAARWG). RESULTS: The working group provided up-to-date recommendations on the epidemiology, pathology, diagnosis and management of AR, appropriate to the South African setting. CONCLUSION: Allergic rhinitis causes significant, often unappreciated, morbidity. It is a complex disease related to an inflammatory response to environmental allergens. Therapy involves education, evaluation of allergen sensitisation, pharmacological treatment, allergen immunotherapy (AIT) and evaluation of the success of interventions. Regular use of saline; the important role of intranasal corticosteroids, including those combined with topical antihistamines and reduction in the use of systemic steroids are key. Practitioners should have a thorough knowledge of associated morbidities and the need for specialist referral.Contribution: This review summarises the latest developments in the diagnosis and management of AR such that it is a resource that allows easy access for family practitioners and specialists alike.

EAACI guidelines on the diagnosis of IgE-mediated food allergy.

This European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology guideline provides recommendations for diagnosing IgE-mediated food allergy and was developed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) approach. Food allergy diagnosis starts with an allergy-focused clinical history followed by tests to determine IgE sensitization, such as serum allergen-specific IgE (sIgE) and skin prick test (SPT), and the basophil activation test (BAT), if available. Evidence for IgE sensitization should be sought for any suspected foods. The diagnosis of allergy to some foods, such as peanut and cashew nut, is well supported by SPT and serum sIgE, whereas there are less data and the performance of these tests is poorer for other foods, such as wheat and soya. The measurement of sIgE to allergen components such as Ara h 2 from peanut, Cor a 14 from hazelnut and Ana o 3 from cashew can be useful to further support the diagnosis, especially in pollen-sensitized individuals. BAT to peanut and sesame can be used additionally. The reference standard for food allergy diagnosis is the oral food challenge (OFC). OFC should be performed in equivocal cases. For practical reasons, open challenges are suitable in most cases. Reassessment of food allergic children with allergy tests and/or OFCs periodically over time will enable reintroduction of food into the diet in the case of spontaneous acquisition of oral tolerance.

Conserving avian evolutionary history can effectively safeguard future benefits for people.

Phylogenetic diversity (PD)-the evolutionary history of a set of species-is conceptually linked to the maintenance of yet-to-be-discovered benefits from biodiversity or "option value." We used global phylogenetic and utilization data for birds to test the PD option value link, under the assumption that the performance of sets of PD-maximizing species at capturing known benefits is analogous to selecting the same species at a point in human history before these benefits were realized. PD performed better than random at capturing utilized bird species across 60% of tests, with performance linked to the phylogenetic dispersion and prevalence of each utilization category. Prioritizing threatened species for conservation by the PD they encapsulate performs comparably to prioritizing by their functional distinctiveness. However, species selected by each metric show low overlap, indicating that we should conserve both components of biodiversity to effectively conserve a variety of uses. Our findings provide empirical support for the link between evolutionary history and benefits for future generations.

Indicators to monitor the status of the tree of life.

Following the failure to fully achieve any of the 20 Aichi biodiversity targets, the future of biodiversity rests in the balance. The Convention on Biological Diversity's Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) presents the opportunity to preserve nature's contributions to people (NCPs) for current and future generations by conserving biodiversity and averting extinctions. There is a need to safeguard the tree of life-the unique and shared evolutionary history of life on Earth-to maintain the benefits it bestows into the future. Two indicators have been adopted within the GBF to monitor progress toward safeguarding the tree of life: the phylogenetic diversity (PD) indicator and the evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered (EDGE) index. We applied both to the world's mammals, birds, and cycads to show their utility at the global and national scale. The PD indicator can be used to monitor the overall conservation status of large parts of the evolutionary tree of life, a measure of biodiversity's capacity to maintain NCPs for future generations. The EDGE index is used to monitor the performance of efforts to conserve the most distinctive species. The risk to PD of birds, cycads, and mammals increased, and mammals exhibited the greatest relative increase in threatened PD over time. These trends appeared robust to the choice of extinction risk weighting. EDGE species had predominantly worsening extinction risk. A greater proportion of EDGE mammals (12%) had increased extinction risk compared with threatened mammals in general (7%). By strengthening commitments to safeguarding the tree of life, biodiversity loss can be reduced and thus nature's capacity to provide benefits to humanity now and in the future can be preserved.

Indicadores para monitorear el estado del árbol de la vida Resumen El futuro de la biodiversidad peligra tras no haberse logrado ninguno de los 20 Objetivos de Aichi. El Marco Global de Biodiversidad (GBF) de Kunming-Montreal del Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica (CDB) representa la oportunidad de preservar las contribuciones de la naturaleza a las personas (PNC) para las generaciones actuales y futuras mediante la conservación de la biodiversidad y la prevención de las extinciones. Es necesario salvaguardar el árbol de la vida -la historia evolutiva única y compartida de la vida en la Tierra- para mantener en el futuro los beneficios que aporta. En el GBF se han adoptado dos indicadores para supervisar los avances hacia el cuidado del árbol de la vida: el indicador de diversidad filogenética y el índice de especies evolutivamente distintas y globalmente amenazadas (EDGE). Aplicamos ambos a los mamíferos, las aves y las cícadas del mundo para demostrar su utilidad a escala mundial y nacional. El indicador de diversidad filogenética puede utilizarse para supervisar el estado de conservación general de grandes partes del árbol evolutivo de la vida, una medida de la capacidad de la biodiversidad para mantener los PNC para las generaciones futuras. El índice EDGE se utiliza para supervisar el rendimiento de los esfuerzos por conservar las especies más distintivas. El riesgo para la diversidad filogenética de aves, cícadas y mamíferos aumentó, y los mamíferos mostraron el mayor aumento relativo de la diversidad filogenética amenazada a lo largo del tiempo. Estas tendencias parecieron sólidas a la hora de elegir la valoración del riesgo de extinción. Las especies EDGE tuvieron un riesgo de extinción predominante cada vez peor. Una mayor proporción de mamíferos EDGE (12%) presentó un riesgo de extinción creciente en comparación con los mamíferos amenazados en general (7%). Si se refuerza el compromiso de salvaguardar el árbol de la vida, se puede reducir la pérdida de biodiversidad y preservar así la capacidad de la naturaleza para proporcionar beneficios a la humanidad ahora y en el futuro.

The EDGE2 protocol: Advancing the prioritisation of Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered species for practical conservation action.

The conservation of evolutionary history has been linked to increased benefits for humanity and can be captured by phylogenetic diversity (PD). The Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) metric has, since 2007, been used to prioritise threatened species for practical conservation that embody large amounts of evolutionary history. While there have been important research advances since 2007, they have not been adopted in practice because of a lack of consensus in the conservation community. Here, building from an interdisciplinary workshop to update the existing EDGE approach, we present an "EDGE2" protocol that draws on a decade of research and innovation to develop an improved, consistent methodology for prioritising species conservation efforts. Key advances include methods for dealing with uncertainty and accounting for the extinction risk of closely related species. We describe EDGE2 in terms of distinct components to facilitate future revisions to its constituent parts without needing to reconsider the whole. We illustrate EDGE2 by applying it to the world's mammals. As we approach a crossroads for global biodiversity policy, this Consensus View shows how collaboration between academic and applied conservation biologists can guide effective and practical priority-setting to conserve biodiversity.

Environment-dependent alterations of immune mediators in urban and rural South African children with atopic dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: In order to improve targeted therapeutic approaches for children with atopic dermatitis (AD), novel insights into the molecular mechanisms and environmental exposures that differentially contribute to disease phenotypes are required. We wished to identify AD immunological endotypes in South African children from rural and urban environments. METHODS: We measured immunological, socio-economic and environmental factors in healthy children (n = 74) and children with AD (n = 78), in rural and urban settings from the same ethno-linguistic AmaXhosa background in South Africa. RESULTS: Circulating eosinophils, monocytes, TARC, MCP-4, IL-16 and allergen-specific IgE levels were elevated, while IL-17A and IL-23 levels were reduced, in children with AD regardless of their location. Independent of AD, children living in a rural environment had the highest levels of TNFα, TNFß, IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-21, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1ß, MDC, sICAM1, sVCAM1, VEGFA, VEGFD and Tie2, suggesting a generalized microinflammation or a pattern of trained immunity without any specific TH polarization. In contrast, IL-15, IL-22, Flt1, PIGF and ßFGF were highest in urban children. Rural healthy children had the lowest levels of food allergen-specific IgG4. Early life nutritional factors, medications, animal exposures, indoor environment, sunlight exposure, household size, household income and parental education levels were associated with differences in circulating cytokine levels. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the immunological impact of environmental exposures and socio-economic status in the manifestation of immune endotypes in children with AD living in urban and rural areas, which are important in selecting appropriately matched immunological therapies for treatment of AD.

House dust microbiota and atopic dermatitis; effect of urbanization.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that a child's risk of developing atopic disease is impacted by both genetic and environmental factors. Because small children spend the majority of their time in their homes, exposure to microbial factors in their home environment may be protective or risk factors for development of atopic diseases, such as atopic dermatitis. METHODS: Dust samples from the homes of 86 Black South African children 12 to 36 months old were collected for analysis of the bacterial microbiome. This case-control study design included children with and without atopic dermatitis from rural and urban environments. RESULTS: Significant differences in bacterial composition and diversity were found when comparing children with and without atopic dermatitis. Furthermore, house dust microbiota was significantly different in rural and urban areas. Differences were best accounted for by higher relative abundance of Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae, and Bacteroidaceae families in rural compared with urban houses. Levels of Ruminococcaceae were also found to be significantly depleted in the house dust of rural children with atopic dermatitis as compared to control children. CONCLUSIONS: House dust composition may be an important risk factor for the development of atopic disease, and this association may be driven in part by the gut microbiome. Low levels of the Ruminococcaceae family from Clostridia class in particular may explain the association between urban living and atopy. However, further research is needed to elucidate these links.

Associations between Environmental dust composition and Atopic Dermatitis in urban and rural settings.

BACKGROUND: Environmental exposures are involved in the pathogenesis of the allergic phenotype and in determining which individual triggers a person becomes sensitized to. Atopic dermatitis (AD) may modulate these effects through increased penetration through the skin modifying the immune system and AD may be triggered or intensified by environmental exposures. These exposures and immune-modulating factors may differ in urban and rural environments. OBJECTIVES: To compare house dust composition in urban and rural settings and correlate them with AD outcomes. METHODS: Dust samples were collected from the beds of 156 children aged 6 months to 3 years. 42% of participants had atopic dermatitis. Samples were analyzed for bacterial endotoxin, fungal (ß-1,3-glucan) levels, and house dust mite, cockroach, dog, cat, mouse, and peanut allergen. Exposures were compared in urban and rural environments and in participants with and without AD. RESULTS: Endotoxin but not fungal ß-glucan exposure is higher in the environment of healthy controls than children with AD in both urban and rural settings. House dust mite allergen exposure is high in urban and rural settings with Dermatophagoides detected in 100% of samples. Cat and dog allergen exposure mirrors pet ownership patterns which differ slightly between groups and environments. Mouse allergen exposure is higher in urban homes. CONCLUSION: Environmental endotoxin may be protective against AD in both urban and rural settings. There are marked differences in allergen exposure in urban and rural settings, but these are unlikely to be important protective or risk factors.

Molecular IgE sensitization profiles of urban and rural children in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Allergens can act as disease-triggering factors in atopic dermatitis (AD) patients. The aim of the study was to elucidate the molecular IgE sensitization profile in children with and without AD living in urban and rural areas of South Africa. METHODS: Specific IgE reactivity was assessed in 166 Black South African children aged 9-38 months using a comprehensive panel of microarrayed allergens. According to clinical characterization children fell in four groups, urban AD cases (n = 32), urban controls (non-AD, n = 40), rural cases (n = 49) and rural controls (non-AD, n = 45). RESULTS: IgE reactivity to at least one of the allergens was detected in 94% of urban and 86% of rural AD children. House dust mite (HDM; 81% urban, 74% rural AD) and animal-derived allergens (50% urban, 31% rural AD) were the most frequently recognized respiratory allergens, whereas IgE to pollen allergens was almost absent. Urban AD children showed significantly higher frequency of IgE reactivity (50%) to mouse lipocalin, Mus m 1, than rural AD children (12%). The most frequently recognized food allergens were from egg (63% urban, 43% rural AD), peanut (31% vs 41%), and soybean (22% vs 27%), whereas milk sensitization was rare. α-gal-specific IgE almost exclusively occurred in rural children (AD: 14%, non-AD: 49%). CONCLUSION: Molecular allergy diagnosis detects frequent IgE sensitization to HDM, animal but not pollen allergens and to egg, peanut, and soy, but not milk allergens in African AD children. Urban AD children reacted more often to Mus m 1, whereas α-gal sensitization is more common in rural children likely due to parasite exposure.

Allergy Prevention: An Overview of Current Evidence.

Background: There has been a rapid rise in allergic disorders across the globe. This has increased research into the determinants of allergy development, to identify factors that may be manipulated to mitigate risk. An opportune window in immunological development appears to exist in early life whereby certain exposures may promote or prevent the development of an allergic disposition. Furthermore, factors that affect the composition and diversity of the microbiome in early life have been explored. In this review, we discuss current literature and recommendations relating to exposures that may prevent allergy development or promote tolerance. Risk factors and recommendations: Delivery by caesarean section, omission of breastfeeding, vitamin D insufficiency, and environmental exposures, such as cigarette smoke exposure, all increase the risk of an allergic predisposition. Dietary diversity during pregnancy, lactation, and in infancy is protective. Breastfeeding for at least 4 months reduces the risk of eczema. Recommendations for food-allergen exposure has shifted from delayed introduction to early introduction as a tolerance-inducing strategy. Supplements such as probiotics and vitamins during pregnancy and infancy have yet to produce conclusive results for allergy prevention. Emollient use in infancy has not been shown to be protective against eczema or food allergy.

Global priorities for conservation of reptilian phylogenetic diversity in the face of human impacts.

Phylogenetic diversity measures are increasingly used in conservation planning to represent aspects of biodiversity beyond that captured by species richness. Here we develop two new metrics that combine phylogenetic diversity and the extent of human pressure across the spatial distribution of species - one metric valuing regions and another prioritising species. We evaluate these metrics for reptiles, which have been largely neglected in previous studies, and contrast these results with equivalent calculations for all terrestrial vertebrate groups. We find that regions under high human pressure coincide with the most irreplaceable areas of reptilian diversity, and more than expected by chance. The highest priority reptile species score far above the top mammal and bird species, and reptiles include a disproportionate number of species with insufficient extinction risk data. Data Deficient species are, in terms of our species-level metric, comparable to Critically Endangered species and therefore may require urgent conservation attention.

Current Controversies and Future Prospects for Peanut Allergy Prevention, Diagnosis and Therapies.

Peanut allergy has increased substantially in the past few decades, both in developed and developing countries. Peanut allergy has become a major public health concern, affecting up to 1 in 50 children, with repercussions for school and airline policies. Recent research findings have shown that, contrary to the long-standing teaching of "delayed" introduction of allergens, early introduction of peanut protein is of benefit as an allergy prevention strategy, especially in high-risk cases. Ideal dose, frequency and duration of "proactive" peanut therapy for maximum protection remain to be determined in order for it to become acceptable and practical on a large scale. Logistics around widespread screening of high-risk patients remain complex. The correct diagnosis of peanut allergy is crucial and diagnostic tests have been fine-tuned in the past 2 decades in order to help differentiate true allergy from false-positive sensitization through cross-reactivity. Component-resolved diagnostics have become routinely available, and the use of basophil activation tests has increased, although standardization and availability remain issues. Future tests, including epitope testing and histamine-release assays, promise to be even more specific in ruling out false positives and reducing the need for incremental food challenges. Stringent peanut avoidance and prompt treatment of reactions remain the cornerstone of treatment. The concept of exposing the allergic body to small amounts of peanut protein in a cautious, orderly, escalating fashion in the form of desensitization has been widely applied in the past 10-15 years, mainly in the research domain, but of late spilling over into every-day practice. However, desensitization does not equate to a cure, and has significant safety concerns and practical ramifications; probably requiring lifelong-controlled peanut ingestion for ongoing protection. Further strategies to enhance the safety and efficacy of immunotherapy are under exploration, many with a non-specific immune-modifying effect. Despite recent advances in peanut allergy, we still need to go back to basics with accurate diagnosis, nutritional counselling, well-organized allergy action plans and accessible emergency kits.

Environmental factors associated with allergy in urban and rural children from the South African Food Allergy (SAFFA) cohort.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of allergic diseases differs in urban and rural populations. OBJECTIVE: We sought to assess associations between environmental and dietary factors with allergic diseases in urban and rural South African children. METHODS: Toddlers aged 12 to 36 months were assessed for food allergen and aeroallergen sensitization, atopic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis, asthma, and challenge-proved food allergy. Information was collected on family history of allergic diseases, household size, socioeconomic status, delivery mode, antibiotic and probiotic use, exposure to fermented and unpasteurized milk, antihelminth treatment, sunlight exposure, pet and farm animal exposure, cigarette smoke, and household cooking and heating fuels. Antenatal exposures to pets, livestock, and cigarette smoke were assessed. A subsection completed questions on consumption of fruits and vegetables, fast foods, soft drinks/fruit juices, and fried/microwaved meat. RESULTS: Risk and protective factors differed between urban and rural settings. Exposure to farm animals in infants and their mothers during pregnancy was protective against allergic outcomes in the rural population. Consumption of unpasteurized milk is uncommon in this group of rural children and is unlikely to be an important factor in rural protection. In urban children birth by cesarean section is associated with food allergy, and consumption of fermented milk products is associated with reduced asthma and atopic dermatitis. In both cohorts antenatal maternal smoking and environmental smoking exposure were predominantly associated with asthma, and consumption of fast foods and fried meats were associated with allergy. CONCLUSION: In this rural environment exposure to livestock is the strongest protective factor. In urban communities, where animal contact is rare, risk factors include cesarian section, and protective factors include consumption of fermented milk products. Modifiable risk factors urgently require interventions to prevent increasing allergy rates in countries undergoing rapid urbanization.

Nutrition and allergic diseases in urban and rural communities from the South African Food Allergy cohort.

This study describes and compares allergic diseases and sensitization in urban and rural children in the SAFFA study cohort as well as infant feeding patterns and nutritional status. We assessed the relationship between nutritional status, breastfeeding, complementary feeding patterns, and atopic diseases including aeroallergen and food allergen sensitization, self-reported atopic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis, asthma, and challenge-proven food allergy (FA). METHODOLOGY: A total of 1185 urban and 398 rural toddlers aged 12-36 months were screened for food sensitization (FS) and FA using skin prick testing and oral food challenges. Of these, 535 and 347, respectively, were additionally screened for aeroallergen sensitization. Information was collected on infant feeding practices, and anthropometric measurements and clinical signs for atopy were documented. RESULTS: Markedly higher rates of allergy (asthma 9.0% vs 1.0%, eczema 25.6% vs 2.0%, rhinitis 25.3% vs 3.3%, and FA 2.5% vs 0.5%) exist in urban vs rural children. 13.1% unselected urban South African children were sensitized to aeroallergens compared to 3.8% of their rural counterparts and 9.0% to any food compared to 0.5%. Exclusive breastfeeding duration was longer, and there was a later introduction of allergenic foods in rural communities. Obesity rates were similar between the two groups, but rural children were more likely to be stunted. Being overweight was associated with asthma in urban but not rural settings. In the urban cohort, children with FS and allergy were thinner than their peers. CONCLUSION: Allergy and sensitization rates are significantly higher in unselected urban South African toddlers than their rural counterparts. Risk and protective factors for allergy and atopy may differ between urban and rural settings.

Rural and urban food allergy prevalence from the South African Food Allergy (SAFFA) study.

BACKGROUND: Food sensitization and challenge-proved food allergy (FA) have not been compared in urban and rural settings. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine and compare the prevalence of food sensitization and challenge-proved IgE-mediated FA in urban and rural South African toddlers aged 12 to 36 months. METHODS: This cross-sectional study of unselected children included 1185 participants in urban Cape Town and 398 in the rural Eastern Cape. All participants completed a questionnaire and underwent skin prick tests (SPTs) to egg, peanut, cow's milk, fish, soya, wheat, and hazelnut. Participants with SPT responses of 1 mm or greater to 1 or more foods and not tolerant on history underwent an open oral food challenge. RESULT: The prevalence of FA was 2.5% (95% CI, 1.6% to 3.3%) in urban children, most commonly to raw egg white (1.9%), followed by cooked egg (0.8%), peanut (0.8%), cow's milk (0.1%), and fish (0.1%). Urban sensitization (SPT response ≥1 mm) to any food was 11.4% (95% CI, 9.6% to 13.3%) and 9.0% (95% CI, 7.5% to 10.8%) at an SPT response of 3 mm or greater. Sensitization in rural cohorts was significantly lower than in the urban cohort (1-mm SPT response, 4.5% [95% CI, 2.5% to 6.6%]; 3-mm SPT response, 2.8% [95% CI, 1.4% to 4.9%]; P < .01). In the rural black African cohort 0.5% (95% CI, 0.1% to 1.8%) of children had food allergy, all to egg. This is significantly lower than the prevalence of the urban cohort overall (2.5%) and urban black African participants (2.9%; 95% CI, 1.5% to 4.3%; P = .006). CONCLUSION: FA prevalence in Cape Town is comparable with rates in industrialized middle-income countries and is significantly greater than in rural areas. Further analysis will describe and compare environmental exposures and other risk factors in this cohort.

Tropical dung beetle morphological traits predict functional traits and show intraspecific differences across land uses.

Functional traits and functional diversity measures are increasingly being used to examine land use effects on biodiversity and community assembly rules. Morphological traits are often used directly as functional traits. However, behavioral characteristics are more difficult to measure. Establishing methods to derive behavioral traits from morphological measurements is necessary to facilitate their inclusion in functional diversity analyses. We collected morphometric data from over 1,700 individuals of 12 species of dung beetle to establish whether morphological measurements can be used as predictors of behavioral traits. We also compared morphology among individuals collected from different land uses (primary forest, logged forest, and oil palm plantation) to identify whether intraspecific differences in morphology vary among land use types. We show that leg and eye measurements can be used to predict dung beetle nesting behavior and period of activity and we used this information to confirm the previously unresolved nesting behavior for Synapsis ritsemae. We found intraspecific differences in morphological traits across different land use types. Phenotypic plasticity was found for traits associated with dispersal (wing aspect ratio and wing loading) and reproductive capacity (abdomen size). The ability to predict behavioral functional traits from morphology is useful where the behavior of individuals cannot be directly observed, especially in tropical environments where the ecology of many species is poorly understood. In addition, we provide evidence that land use change can cause phenotypic plasticity in tropical dung beetle species. Our results reinforce recent calls for intraspecific variation in traits to receive more attention within community ecology.