The Candida albicans toxin candidalysin mediates distinct epithelial inflammatory responses through p38 and EGFR-ERK pathways.

The fungal pathogen Candida albicans secretes the peptide toxin candidalysin, which damages epithelial cells and drives an innate inflammatory response mediated by the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways and the transcription factor c-Fos. In cultured oral epithelial cells, candidalysin activated the MAPK p38, which resulted in heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27) activation, IL-6 release, and EGFR phosphorylation without affecting the induction of c-Fos. p38 activation was not triggered by EGFR but by two nonredundant pathways involving MAPK kinases (MKKs) and the kinase Src, which differentially controlled p38 signaling outputs. Whereas MKKs mainly promoted p38-dependent release of IL-6, Src promoted p38-mediated phosphorylation of EGFR in a ligand-independent fashion. In parallel, candidalysin also activated the EGFR-ERK pathway in a ligand-dependent manner, resulting in c-Fos activation and release of the neutrophil-activating chemokines G-CSF and GM-CSF. In mice, early clearance events of oral C. albicans infection required p38 but not c-Fos. These findings delineate how candidalysin activates the pathways downstream of the MAPKs p38 and ERK that differentially contribute to immune activation during C. albicans infection.

MCT8 deficiency in Purkinje cells disrupts embryonic chicken cerebellar development.

Inactivating mutations in the human SLC16A2 gene encoding the thyroid hormone transporter monocarboxylate transporter 8 (MCT8) result in the Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome accompanied by severe locomotor deficits. The underlying mechanisms of the associated cerebellar maldevelopment were studied using the chicken as a model. Electroporation of an MCT8-RNAi vector into the cerebellar anlage of a 3-day-old embryo allowed knockdown of MCT8 in Purkinje cell precursors. This resulted in the downregulation of the thyroid hormone-responsive gene RORα and the Purkinje cell-specific differentiation marker LHX1/5 at day 6. MCT8 knockdown also results in a smaller and less complex dendritic tree at day 18 suggesting a pivotal role of MCT8 for cell-autonomous Purkinje cell maturation. Early administration of the thyroid hormone analogue 3,5,3'-triiodothyroacetic acid partially rescued early Purkinje cell differentiation. MCT8-deficient Purkinje cells also induced non-autonomous effects as they led to a reduced granule cell precursor proliferation, a thinner external germinal layer and a loss of PAX6 expression. By contrast, at day 18, the external germinal layer thickness was increased, with an increase in presence of Axonin-1-positive post-mitotic granule cells in the initial stage of radial migration. The concomitant accumulation of presumptive migrating granule cells in the molecular layer, suggests that inward radial migration to the internal granular layer is stalled. In conclusion, early MCT8 deficiency in Purkinje cells results in both cell-autonomous and non-autonomous effects on cerebellar development and indicates that MCT8 expression is essential from very early stages of development, providing a novel insight into the ontogenesis of the Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome.

Development of the cerebellum: simple steps to make a 'little brain'.

The cerebellum is a pre-eminent model for the study of neurogenesis and circuit assembly. Increasing interest in the cerebellum as a participant in higher cognitive processes and as a locus for a range of disorders and diseases make this simple yet elusive structure an important model in a number of fields. In recent years, our understanding of some of the more familiar aspects of cerebellar growth, such as its territorial allocation and the origin of its various cell types, has undergone major recalibration. Furthermore, owing to its stereotyped circuitry across a range of species, insights from a variety of species have contributed to an increasingly rich picture of how this system develops. Here, we review these recent advances and explore three distinct aspects of cerebellar development - allocation of the cerebellar anlage, the significance of transit amplification and the generation of neuronal diversity - each defined by distinct regulatory mechanisms and each with special significance for health and disease.

Developmental origins of diversity in cerebellar output nuclei.

BACKGROUND: The functional integration of the cerebellum into a number of different neural systems is governed by the connection of its output axons. In amniotes, the majority of this output is mediated by an evolutionarily diverse array of cerebellar nuclei that, in mice, are derived from the embryonic rhombic lip. To understand the origins of cerebellar nucleus diversity, we have explored how nucleus development is patterned in birds, which notably lack a dentate-like nucleus output to the dorsal thalamus. RESULTS: Using targeted in ovo electoroporation of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and red fluorescent protein (RFP) in a variety of combinations and with different conditional enhancers, we show that cerebellar nuclei in chicks are produced, as in the mouse, at the rhombic lip. Furthermore, the comparison of fate-mapped neurons with molecular markers reveals a strict temporal sequence of cell fate allocation in establishing the avian lateral and medial cerebellar nuclei. In contrast to the mouse cerebellum, Lhx9 expression is confined to extracerebellar thalamic afferent nuclei corresponding to the absence, in chicks, of a dentate nucleus. Spatiotemporally targeted over-expression of Lhx9 in chick cerebellar nuclei (recapitulating in part the mammalian expression pattern) results in a loss of distinct nuclear boundaries and a change in axon initial trajectories consistent with a role for Lhx9 specifying targeting. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm the relationship between cell fate and a fine grain temporal patterning at the rhombic lip. This suggests that the lack of a cerebellar output to the dorsal thalamus of birds corresponds with a restricted expression of the LIM-homeodomain gene Lhx9 to earlier born rhombic lip cohorts when compared to mice. The evolution of cerebellar nucleus diversity in amniotes may hence reflect a heterochronic adaptation of gene expression with respect to the sequential production of rhombic lip derivatives resulting in altered axonal targeting.

Independently specified Atoh1 domains define novel developmental compartments in rhombomere 1.

The rhombic lip gives rise to neuronal populations that contribute to cerebellar, proprioceptive and interoceptive networks. Cell production depends on the expression of the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor Atoh1. In rhombomere 1, Atoh1-positive cells give rise to both cerebellar neurons and extra-cerebellar nuclei in ventral hindbrain. The origin of this cellular diversity has previously been attributed to temporal signals rather than spatial patterning. Here, we show that in both chick and mouse the cerebellar Atoh1 precursor pool is partitioned into initially cryptic spatial domains that reflect the activity of two different organisers: an isthmic Atoh1 domain, which gives rise to isthmic nuclei, and the rhombic lip, which generates deep cerebellar nuclei and granule cells. We use a combination of in vitro explant culture, genetic fate mapping and gene overexpression and knockdown to explore the role of isthmic signalling in patterning these domains. We show that an FGF-dependent isthmic Atoh1 domain is the origin of distinct populations of Lhx9-positive neurons in the extra-cerebellar isthmic nuclei. In the cerebellum, ectopic FGF induces proliferation while blockade reduces the length of the cerebellar rhombic lip. FGF signalling is not required for the specification of cerebellar cell types from the rhombic lip and its upregulation inhibits their production. This suggests that although the isthmus regulates the size of the cerebellar anlage, the downregulation of isthmic FGF signals is required for induction of rhombic lip-derived cerebellar neurons.

Mirror-symmetric microtubule assembly and cell interactions drive lumen formation in the zebrafish neural rod.

By analysing the cellular and subcellular events that occur in the centre of the developing zebrafish neural rod, we have uncovered a novel mechanism of cell polarisation during lumen formation. Cells from each side of the neural rod interdigitate across the tissue midline. This is necessary for localisation of apical junctional proteins to the region where cells intersect the tissue midline. Cells assemble a mirror-symmetric microtubule cytoskeleton around the tissue midline, which is necessary for the trafficking of proteins required for normal lumen formation, such as partitioning defective 3 and Rab11a to this point. This occurs in advance and is independent of the midline cell division that has been shown to have a powerful role in lumen organisation. To our knowledge, this is the first example of the initiation of apical polarisation part way along the length of a cell, rather than at a cell extremity. Although the midline division is not necessary for apical polarisation, it confers a morphogenetic advantage by efficiently eliminating cellular processes that would otherwise bridge the developing lumen.