Lack of bone lesions at diagnosis is associated with inferior outcome in multisystem langerhans cell histiocytosis of childhood.

Skeletal involvement is generally, but not universally, characteristic of Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). We investigated whether the presence of bone lesions at diagnosis is a prognostic factor for survival in LCH. Nine hundred and thirty-eight children with multisystem (MS) LCH, both high (386 RO+) and low (RO-) risk, were evaluated for bone lesions at diagnosis. Risk organ (RO+) involvement was defined as: haematopoietic system (haemoglobin <100 g/l, and/or white blood cell count <4·0 × 10(9) /l and/or platelet count <100 × 10(9) /l), spleen (>2 cm below the costal margin), liver (>3 cm and/or hypoproteinaemia, hypoalbuminaemia, hyperbilirubinaemia, and/or increased aspartate transaminase/alanine transaminase). Given the general view that prognosis in LCH worsens with increasing extent of disease, the surprising finding was that in MS+RO+ LCH the probability of survival with bone involvement 74 ± 3% (n = 230, 56 events) was reduced to 62 ± 4% (n = 156, 55 events) if this was absent (P = 0·007). An even greater difference was seen in the subgroup of patients with both liver and either haematopoiesis or spleen involvement: 61 ± 5% survival (n = 105; 52 events) if patients had bony lesions, versus 47 ± 5% (n = 111; 39 events) if they did not (P = 0·014). This difference was retained in multivariate analysis (P = 0·048). Although as yet unexplained, we conclude that bone involvement at diagnosis is a previously unrecognized favourable prognostic factor in MS+RO+ LCH.

Therapy prolongation improves outcome in multisystem Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH)-III tested risk-adjusted, intensified, longer treatment of multisystem LCH (MS-LCH), for which optimal therapy has been elusive. Stratified by risk organ involvement (high [RO+] or low [RO-] risk groups), > 400 patients were randomized. RO+ patients received 1 to 2 six-week courses of vinblastine+prednisone (Arm A) or vinblastine + prednisone + methotrexate (Arm B). Response triggered milder continuation therapy with the same combinations, plus 6-mercaptopurine, for 12 months total treatment. 6/12-week response rates (mean, 71%) and 5-year survival (84%) and reactivation rates (27%) were similar in both arms. Notably, historical comparisons revealed survival superior to that of identically stratified RO+ patients treated for 6 months in predecessor trials LCH-I (62%) or LCH-II (69%, P < .001), and lower 5-year reactivation rates than in LCH-I (55%) or LCH-II (44%, P < .001). RO- patients received vinblastine+prednisone throughout. Response by 6 weeks triggered randomization to 6 or 12 months total treatment. Significantly lower 5-year reactivation rates characterized the 12-month Arm D (37%) compared with 6-month Arm C (54%, P = .03) or to 6-month schedules in LCH-I (52%) and LCH-II (48%, P < .001). Thus, prolonging treatment decreased RO- patient reactivations in LCH-III, and although methotrexate added no benefit, RO+ patient survival and reactivation rates have substantially improved in the 3 sequential trials. (Trial No. NCT00276757 www.ClinicalTrials.gov).

Long-term outcome of hypothalamic pituitary tumors in Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

BACKGROUND: Hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) disease is the most common CNS manifestation of Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) frequently leading to diabetes insipidus (DI) and anterior pituitary hormone deficiencies (APD). On MRI, loss of the normal posterior pituitary signal and thickening of the pituitary stalk have been described, as well as neurodegenerative signal changes associated with neuropsychological disabilities in some patients. The influence of therapy on the long-term course of HP tumors and neurodegeneration (ND) is not well-understood. PROCEDURE: In this retrospective survey we focused on patients with LCH and HP disease with clinical and MRI data available at diagnosis of HP disease and at least three follow up investigations. We collected clinical and MRI follow-up information for central review and analysis. RESULTS: We identified 22 patients with HP tumors (HPT) registered at the LCH study center. Many different treatment regimens were applied for variable periods, with more than one regimen in most patients. Regression of the tumor was seen in the majority, but all patients had APD or ND on MRI at last follow up. In none of the patients APD and ND regressed or resolved. A deterioration of radiological ND was noted in 17 patients leading to overt clinical neuropsychological impairment in five. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with HPT appear to be at high risk to develop permanent neuroendocrine consequences. Coordinated studies for patients with LCH and HP disease including thorough MRI monitoring and neuropsychological tests are needed.

Incidence and pattern of radiological central nervous system Langerhans cell histiocytosis in children: a population based study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) may develop neurodegeneration and other central nervous system (CNS) dysfunctions revealed by brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We estimated the incidence and pattern of pathological brain MRI findings in a well-defined, population-based cohort of children with LCH. METHODS: Among children under 15 years of age diagnosed with LCH in the Stockholm County during 1992-2001, brain MRI was performed at a single center in children with clinical and/or laboratory signs of CNS involvement, including endocrine dysfunction. RESULTS: Out of the 29 children (16 males, 13 females) diagnosed with LCH, brain MRI was performed based on clinical indications in 16 children (55%) with either abnormal endocrine findings (n = 6), such as diabetes insipidus (n = 5), low IGF-1 (n = 1), or panhypopituitarism (n = 1), or clinical CNS symptoms (n = 10). CNS MRI abnormalities were demonstrated in eight children (28%), at a median time of 3.5 years after LCH diagnosis (range 1-11.4 years). Altogether 7 of the 29 children (24%) had MRI findings associated with neurodegeneration, corresponding to a minimal incidence of 2.1/10(6) children per year. Neurodegenerative abnormalities tended to be more frequent in patients with craniofacial involvement (P = 0.12). CONCLUSIONS: The minimal annual incidence rate of neurodegenerative associated radiographic findings in LCH is estimated at 2.1/10(6) children (24% of all children with LCH). An important question is whether all patients with LCH, or certain forms of LCH, should be recommended for a late follow-up examination including MRI. In patients with CNS-LCH, neurological, neuropsychological, neurophysiological, neurochemical and neuroradiological follow-up assessment is suggested.

2'-Chlorodeoxyadenosine (2-CdA) as salvage therapy for Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). results of the LCH-S-98 protocol of the Histiocyte Society.

BACKGROUND: A prospective phase II Histiocyte Society study, LCH-S-98, evaluated the efficacy of 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine (2-CdA) monotherapy as salvage therapy in Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). PROCEDURES: Patients with poor and intermediate risk LCH not responsive to initial therapy and patients with low-risk chronic recurrent LCH were evaluated for response and survival after treatment with 2-6 courses of 2-CdA. RESULTS: Forty-six patients (55%) had involvement of risk organs; lung, liver, spleen, or hematopoetic system (RO+), 37 (45%) were RO-. Twenty-two percent of RO+ patients had a good response while 44% progressed, 62% RO- patients responded, and 11% progressed. Two-year predicted survival is 48% for RO+, 97% for RO- patients, 100% for RO+ patients reactivating in non-risk organs, 67% for RO- patients reactivating in risk organs. Two-year pSU for the entire group is 68%. Seventy-three percent of patients with a poor response to 2-CdA died. Sixty-five percent patients >2 years old and 30% <2 years old survived. There was a median of 26 months from diagnosis to 2-CdA for responders compared to a median of 5 months for non-responders. Twenty-one percent of patients treated <12 months and 57% treated >12 months from diagnosis responded. CONCLUSION: 2-CdA is active in LCH. It produces a higher response rate in patients with low-risk multisystem or multifocal bone disease than those with risk organ involvement. "Risk" patients who fail to respond to 2-CdA have a high mortality. Patient age at 2-CdA therapy and length of time from diagnosis to 2-CdA significantly affect response and survival.

Reactivations in multisystem Langerhans cell histiocytosis: data of the international LCH registry.

OBJECTIVE: To assess multisystem Langerhans cell histiocytosis reactivation and its impact on morbidity and mortality. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of 335 patients with MS-LCH and documented complete disease resolution (NAD1). RESULTS: The probability of a reactivation within 5 years of NAD1 was 46%. The first reactivation occurred within 2 years after NAD1 in most of the patients. Of 134 events, 35% were confined to skeleton, 24% were single-system nonbony lesions, 24% were multisystem reactivations without risk-organ involvement, and 10% with risk-organ involvement. In 7%, the location was unspecified. Only 3 deaths (2.2%) were documented within the context of a first reactivation. Second disease resolution (NAD2) was achieved in 85% of the cases. The probability of a second reactivation within 5 years of NAD2 was 44%. The risk for permanent consequences in patients with reactivations was higher, compared with patients without reactivation (RHR 2.2, P = .046). CONCLUSIONS: Reactivation is a frequent and early event in MS-LCH, but involvement of risk organs at reactivation is rare and mortality is minimal. However, reactivations increase the risk for permanent consequences by about 2-fold. Prospective trials targeting reduction of acute morbidity and permanent disabilities through nontoxic treatment of the reactivations are warranted.

Pattern and course of neurodegeneration in Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the frequency and course of neurodegenerative central nervous system (CNS) disease in Langerhans cell histiocytosis (ND-LCH). STUDY DESIGN: We studied 83 patients with LCH in whom magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain was performed at least twice for various clinical indications. We defined radiologic ND-LCH as an MRI pattern comprising bilateral symmetric lesions in the dentate nucleus of the cerebellum or basal ganglia. RESULTS: Forty-seven of 83 patients (57%) had radiologic ND-LCH, at a median of 34 months (range 0-16 years) from the diagnosis of LCH. The MRI findings deteriorated in 31/47 (66%) patients over a median of 3 years (range 2 months to 12 years 6 months) and did not reverse in any patient. In 12 patients with radiologic ND-LCH (25%), clinical ND-LCH with overt symptoms were found 3 to 15 years (median 6 years) after initial LCH diagnosis. These symptoms included intention tremor, cerebellar ataxia, dysarthria, dysdiadochokinesis, concentration deficits, psychomotor retardation, severe headaches, and psychosis. CONCLUSION: We conclude that radiologic ND-LCH is serious, not uncommon in patients studied by MRI, irreversible, and may be followed by severe clinical ND-LCH many years after the initial diagnosis of LCH.

Improved outcome in multisystem Langerhans cell histiocytosis is associated with therapy intensification.

Multisystem Langerhans cell histiocytosis (MS-LCH) is associated with high mortality when patients have risk organ involvement (RO(+)) or are younger than 2 years. In an international randomized trial, LCH-II, we intensified their treatment: arm A consisted of 6 weeks of daily prednisone and weekly vinblastine followed by 18 weeks of daily 6-mercaptopurine with vinblastine/prednisone pulses; etoposide was added in arm B. Considering all 193 randomized risk patients, there were similar outcomes: rapid (6 weeks) response (arm A vs arm B: 63%/71%), 5-year survival probability (74%/79%), disease reactivation frequency (46%/46%), and permanent consequences (43%/37%). However, (1) patients younger than 2 years without RO involvement (RO(-)) had 100% survival and uniformly high (> 80%) rapid response, (2) RO(+) patients not responding within 6 weeks had highest mortality, and (3) importantly, the more intensive arm B reduced mortality in RO(+) patients (relative hazard rate, accounting for differences in risk organ involvement, of 0.54; 95% CI = 0.29-1.00). Finally, comparison of RO(+) patients in LCH-I and LCH-II confirmed that increasing treatment intensity increased rapid responses (from 43% in arm A LCH-I to 68% in arm B LCH-II; P = .027) and reduced mortality (from 44% in arm A LCH-I to 27% in arm B LCH-II; P = .042). We conclude that intensified treatment significantly increases rapid response and reduces mortality in risk MS-LCH. This trial was registered at http://www.controlled-trials.com as no. ISRCTN57679341.

Bone marrow assessment in Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

BACKGROUND: Bone marrow changes and their relation to blood cytopenia in patients with Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) have not been extensively studied to date. The aim of the present study was to characterize the bone marrow changes in LCH patients and to ascertain their relation to disease severity. METHODS: Fifty-seven marrow samples of LCH patients were studied by conventional cytology, immunocytochemistry (ICC) and flow cytometry (FCM). RESULTS: On conventional cytology there was no significant difference between LCH cases and controls with respect to cellularity, number of monocytes and progenitor cells, and presence of histiocytes and hemophagocytosis. The numbers of nucleated cells, CD34(pos) cells, and CD14(pos) cells on FCM did not differ, either. The CD1a staining by ICC was positive in 14/41 LCH samples, and was consistently negative in controls. FCM staining for CD1a was positive in 12/54 samples, but also in 5/35 controls. The number of the CD1a(pos) cells in LCH marrows was usually very low (<10-20 cells/slide by ICC, or <0.5% of the leukocytes by FCM). The CD1a staining was more frequently positive and more pronounced in patients with severe disease. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of conventional aspirate cytology with ICC (CD1a staining) appears to be the most reliable tool for bone marrow assessment in LCH.

Central nervous system-related permanent consequences in patients with Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

BACKGROUND: Permanent consequences in Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) are irreversible late sequelae related to the disease that may severely impair the quality of life of survivors. The frequency and pattern of permanent consequences affecting the central nervous system (CNS) remains to be determined. PROCEDURE: In this single center study, 25 LCH patients observed for a median time of 10 years 3 months underwent a uniform thorough follow-up program including neuropsychological testing and electrophysiological evaluation. RESULTS: Overall permanent consequences were seen in 9 of 25 patients. Intracranial abnormalities were the most frequent including diabetes insipidus (DI) in seven patients, anterior pituitary deficiencies in five patients, and neurodegenerative CNS disease in five patients. No patient had overt neurological symptoms upon neurological evaluation, but psychological testing revealed subtle deficits in short-term auditory memory (STAM) in 14 patients. Brain stem evoked potentials showed abnormalities in four of nine tested patients, all of these four had neurodegeneration on MRI. CONCLUSION: Psychoneuroendocrine sequelae were found in an unexpectedly high number of patients in this single center study. Long-term follow-up focusing on such sequelae are important in LCH survivors, in order to detect early deficits, to monitor the evolution of the disease, and to provide specific support.

Central diabetes insipidus: Is it Langerhans cell histiocytosis of the pituitary stalk? A diagnostic pitfall.

Central diabetes insipidus (CDI) is a rare disorder that may be caused by a variety of diseases. In pediatric and adolescent patients the most common causes for CDI are Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) and germinoma. To avoid a potentially hazardous biopsy of the hypothalamic pituitary region it is recommended to evaluate patients with CDI carefully to identify potential extracranial lesions. Since LCH is the most common systemic disease that may cause CDI, special focus is paid to the identification of LCH lesions. We report on a 9(1/2) year old girl who presented with central diabetes insipidus and a thickening of the pituitary stalk on magnetic resonance imaging. Diagnostic workup revealed a history of recurrent ear infections and a compressed 6th thoracic vertebral body on radiographs. Based on these findings LCH was anticipated. Upon growth of the pituitary stalk lesion the patient was treated with LCH standard chemotherapy. After an initial shrinkage of the lesion, a further growth of the pituitary stalk lesion was observed and the tumor was resected. Histopathology revealed germinoma. This case underscores the importance of a istopathologically proven diagnosis in patients with HPR tumors before the initiation of a specific therapy, even if the clinical findings are highly suggestive.

Modern imaging methods for the assessment of Langerhans' cell histiocytosis-associated neurodegenerative syndrome: case report.

Langerhans' cell histiocytosis-associated neurodegenerative syndrome is an enigmatic manifestation, most often localized in the cerebellum and the basal ganglia. Its pathophysiologic basis is poorly understood, and effective treatment strategies are currently missing. Modern imaging modalities offer the possibility of shedding further light on this puzzling disease in a noninvasive way. We report on a 12-year-old boy with a Langerhans' cell histiocytosis-associated neurodegenerative syndrome who underwent a thorough evaluation with different modern imaging methods in addition to routine brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to analyze their informative value for this condition. Additional imaging included positron emission tomography using [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG-PET), single photon emission computed tomography using [123I]2beta-carbomethoxy-3beta-(4-iodophenyl)tropane and [123I]iodobenzamide, and magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The potential relevance of each method for neurodegenerative Langerhans' cell histiocytosis is discussed based on the results obtained, and a review of the literature is made. The case underlines the fact that MRI undoubtedly possesses the major role in the diagnostic evaluation and monitoring of Langerhans' cell histiocytosis-associated neurodegenerative syndrome. FDG-PET and magnetic resonance spectroscopy findings were in good correlation with the MRI results. In particular, magnetic resonance spectroscopy could provide a valuable diagnostic tool in addition to MRI in the early detection and evaluation of the neurodegenerative component of this disease.

Neuropathology of CNS disease in Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

CNS involvement in Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a rare but potentially devastating disorder. Different types of involvement have been described by MRI. CNS changes can have space-occupying or degenerative character. Little is known about the underlying neuropathology and pathophysiology. In our study we reviewed brain samples from 12 patients with LCH. The neuropathology findings were correlated with the MR morphology and the clinical presentation. By neuropathology, three types of lesions were distinguished. (i) Circumscribed granulomas within the brain's connective tissue space corresponded to tumorous lesions in the meninges or choroid plexus on MRI. They showed a composition similar to Langerhans granulomas in peripheral organs, with variable presence of CD1a-reactive cells and pronounced CD8-positive (+) T-cell infiltration. (ii) Granulomas occur within the brain's connective tissue spaces with partial infiltration of the surrounding CNS parenchyma by CD1a-reactive histiocytes. This was associated with profound T-cell-dominated inflammation and severe neurodegeneration, characterized by a nearly complete loss of neurons and axons, and gliosis. (iii) Neurodegenerative lesions lacking infiltration of CD1a+ cells, mainly affecting the cerebellum and brainstem, exhibited a profound inflammatory process dominated by CD8-reactive lymphocytes, associated with tissue degeneration, microglial activation and gliosis. Patients with such lesions showed different stages of neurological deterioration. This study indicates that neurodegeneration in LCH occurs on the background of a T-cell-dominated inflammatory process and is characterized by neuronal and axonal destruction with secondary demyelination, resembling paraneoplastic encephalitis.

Central diabetes insipidus as presenting symptom of Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Central diabetes insipidus (CDI) is a rare disorder associated with various underlying diseases. Among the systemic diseases that may cause CDI, Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is the most common. Therefore, in patients with endocrinologically proven CDI, a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation is crucial to identify possible extracranial sites of LCH. The goal of the diagnostic evaluation is to yield histopathological proof of the underlying disease. If possible, this histopathological proof should be provided by a biopsy of extracranial lesions to avoid a potentially hazardous biopsy of the pituitary stalk. STUDY DESIGN: In this retrospective study we included 54 patients registered at the LCH study reference center in whom the onset of CDI preceded the diagnosis of LCH, and we investigated their presentation and course to define a clinical pattern characteristic for LCH. RESULTS: In 49/54 patients (91%) the detection and biopsy of extracranial lesions led to the diagnosis of LCH. The most frequently involved organs were bones, skin, and lungs; 86% of the patients with bone lesions had skull lesions. In 18% of the patients extracranial lesions were already found at presentation of CDI, in another 51% of the patients extracranial lesions were found within 1 year from onset of CDI. CONCLUSIONS: These observations underline that a comprehensive search for extracranial lesions at presentation and during the first year thereafter may help to achieve a specific diagnosis without a pituitary stalk biopsy.

Course and clinical impact of magnetic resonance imaging findings in diabetes insipidus associated with Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes insipidus (DI) is the most frequent sequela in Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH). The clinical relevance and therapeutic impact of brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings in LCH patients with LCH during the disease course is unclear. PROCEDURE: In this retrospective study, we reviewed 113 brain MRIs from 59 DI patients, in 17 of these serial follow up MR-examination findings were correlated to the clinical course and therapy. RESULTS: At DI diagnosis, 71% patients showed a thickened stalk, in 24% the stalk was still thickened on MRIs done more than 5 years after DI onset, and in two patients the stalk was already thickened several months before DI onset. The changes of the pituitary stalk thickness were highly variable and did not clearly correlate with the treatment. Regression of pituitary thickness on MRI did not concur with clinical recovery of DI, which persisted in all but one patient with initially partial DI. The occurrence of anterior pituitary hormone deficiencies appeared to be linked to a thickening of the stalk at DI diagnosis. LCH-lesions in the craniofacial bones were seen in 75% DI patients, and 76% of DI patients with follow up MRIs done 5 years or longer after DI diagnosis had parenchymal neurodegenerative brain changes. CONCLUSIONS: Our study indicates that repeated MR-examinations in DI patients are of limited value for assessing a response to therapy in the pituitary stalk, but are important for the monitoring of craniofacial bone lesions and for the detection of parenchymal CNS disease.

MR imaging presentation of intracranial disease associated with Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Intracranial manifestations of Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) are underestimated in frequency and diversity. We categorized the spectrum of MR imaging changes in LCH. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 474 MR images in 163 patients with LCH and 55 control subjects. Lesions were characterized by anatomic region and signal intensity. Brain atrophy was assessed. RESULTS: We noted osseous lesions in the craniofacial or skull bones in 56% of patients, meningeal lesions in 29%, and choroid-plexus involvement in 6%. In the hypothalamic-pituitary region, infundibular thickening occurred in 50%; pronounced hypothalamic mass lesions in 10%; and infundibular atrophy in 29%. The pineal gland had a cystic appearance in 28%, and pineal-gland enlargement (>10 mm) was noted in 14%. Nonspecific paranasal-sinus or mastoid opacifications were seen in 55% of patients versus 20% of controls, and accentuated Virchow-Robin spaces occurred in 70% of patients versus 27% of controls (P <.001). Intra-axial, white-matter parenchymal changes resulted in a leukoencephalopathy-like pattern in 36%. Enhancing lesions in a vascular distribution were noted in 5%. Gray-matter changes suggestive of neurodegeneration were identified in the cerebellar dentate nucleus in 40% and in the supratentorial basal ganglia in 26%. All patients with neurodegenerative lesions had lesions in the extra-axial spaces. Cerebral atrophy was found in 8%. CONCLUSION: In LCH, cranial and intracranial changes at MR imaging include 1) lesions of the craniofacial bone and skull base with or without soft-tissue extension; 2) intracranial, extra-axial changes (hypothalamic-pituitary region, meninges, circumventricular organs); 3) intracranial, intra-axial changes (white matter and gray matter); and 4) cerebral atrophy.