Quantitative proteomics reveals differential extracellular vesicle cargo from M1 and M2 monocyte-derived human macrophages.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) mediate intercellular communication by carrying molecular cargo that facilitate diverse physiological processes. Macrophages, playing central roles in immune responses, release EVs that modulate various cellular functions. Given the distinct roles of M1 and M2 macrophage states, understanding the proteomic profiles of their EVs is important for elucidation of EV-mediated signalling and identifying potential biomarkers for diseases involving macrophage polarisation. We employed quantitative proteomics combined with bioinformatics to characterise the proteomic profile of EVs released by M1 and M2 monocyte-derived macrophages. We identified 1,731 proteins in M1/M2 EVs, 132 of which were significantly differentially between M1 and M2. Proteomic data, together with pathway analysis, found that M1/M2 macrophage EV cargo relate to cellular source, and may play roles in shaping immune responses, with M1 EV cargo associated with promotion of pro-inflammatory and antiviral functions, while M2 EV cargo associated with immune regulation and tissue repair. M1 EV cargo was associated with cytokine/chemokine signalling pathways, DNA damage, methylation, and oxidative stress. M2 EV cargo were associated with macrophage alternative-activation signalling pathways, antigen presentation, and lipid metabolism. We also report that macrophage EVs carry metallothioneins, and other related proteins involved in response to metals and oxidative stress.

Leptin-Mediated Induction of IL-6 Expression in Hofbauer Cells Contributes to Preeclampsia Pathogenesis.

Leptin plays a crucial role in regulating energy homoeostasis, neuroendocrine function, metabolism, and immune and inflammatory responses. The adipose tissue is a main source of leptin, but during pregnancy, leptin is also secreted primarily by the placenta. Circulating leptin levels peak during the second trimester of human pregnancy and fall after labor. Several studies indicated a strong association between elevated placental leptin levels and preeclampsia (PE) pathogenesis and elevated serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels in PE patients. Therefore, we hypothesized that a local increase in placental leptin production induces IL-6 production in Hofbauer cells (HBCs) to contribute to PE-associated inflammation. We first investigated HBCs-specific IL-6 and leptin receptor (LEPR) expression and compared their immunoreactivity in PE vs. gestational age-matched control placentas. Subsequently, we examined the in vitro regulation of IL-6 as well as the phosphorylation levels of intracellular signaling proteins STAT3, STAT5, NF-κB, and ERK1/2 by increasing recombinant human leptin concentrations (10 to 1000 ng/mL) in primary cultured HBCs. Lastly, HBC cultures were incubated with leptin ± specific inhibitors of STAT3 or STAT5, or p65 NF-κB or ERK1/2 MAPK signaling cascades to determine relevant cascade(s) involved in leptin-mediated IL-6 regulation. Immunohistochemistry revealed ~three- and ~five-fold increases in IL-6 and LEPR expression, respectively, in HBCs from PE placentas. In vitro analysis indicated that leptin treatment in HBCs stimulate IL-6 in a concentration-dependent manner both at the transcriptional and secretory levels (p < 0.05). Moreover, leptin-treated HBC cultures displayed significantly increased phosphorylation levels of STAT5, p65 NF-κB, and ERK1/2 MAPK and pre-incubation of HBCs with a specific ERK1/2 MAPK inhibitor blocked leptin-induced IL-6 expression. Our in situ results show that HBCs contribute to the pathogenesis of PE by elevating IL-6 expression, and in vitro results indicate that induction of IL-6 expression in HBCs is primarily leptin-mediated. While HBCs display an anti-inflammatory phenotype in normal placentas, elevated levels of leptin may transform HBCs into a pro-inflammatory phenotype by activating ERK1/2 MAPK to augment IL-6 expression.

Placental macrophage responses to viral and bacterial ligands and the influence of fetal sex.

Bacterial and viral infections of the placenta are associated with inflammation and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Hofbauer cells (HBCs) are fetal-origin macrophages in the placenta, proposed to protect the fetus from vertical pathogen transmission. We performed quantitative proteomics on term HBCs under resting conditions and following exposure to bacterial and viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and investigated the contribution of fetal sex. Resting HBCs expressed proteins pertinent to macrophage function, including chemokines, cytokines, Toll-like receptors, and major histocompatibility complex class I and II molecules. HBCs mounted divergent responses to bacterial versus viral PAMPs but exhibited protein expression changes suggestive of a more pro-inflammatory phenotype. A comparison between male and female HBCs showed that the latter mounted a stronger and wider response. Here, we provide a comprehensive understanding of the sex-dependent responses of placental macrophages to infectious triggers, which were primarily associated with lipid metabolism in males and cytoskeleton organization in females.

Insulin increases placental triglyceride as a potential mechanism for fetal adiposity in maternal obesity.

OBJECTIVE: Maternal obesity increases the incidence of excess adiposity in newborns, resulting in lifelong diabetes risk. Elevated intrauterine fetal adiposity has been attributed to maternal hyperglycemia; however, this hypothesis does not account for the increased adiposity seen in newborns of mothers with obesity who have euglycemia. We aimed to explore the placental response to maternal hyperinsulinemia and the effect of insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF-2) in promoting fetal adiposity by increasing storage and availability of nutrients to the fetus. METHODS: We used placental villous explants and isolated trophoblasts from normal weight and obese women to assess the effect of insulin and IGF-2 on triglyceride content and insulin receptor signaling. Stable isotope tracer methods were used ex vivo to determine effect of hormone treatment on de novo lipogenesis (DNL), fatty acid uptake, fatty acid oxidation, and esterification in the placenta. RESULTS: Here we show that placentae from euglycemic women with normal weight and obesity both have abundant insulin receptor. Placental depth and triglyceride were greater in women with obesity compared with normal weight women. In syncytialized placental trophoblasts and villous explants, insulin and IGF-2 activate insulin receptor, induce expression of lipogenic transcription factor SREBP-1 (sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1), and stimulate triglyceride accumulation. We demonstrate elevated triglyceride is attributable to increased esterification of fatty acids, without contribution from DNL and without an acceleration of fatty acid uptake. CONCLUSIONS: Our work reveals that obesity-driven aberrations in maternal metabolism, such as hyperinsulinemia, alter placental metabolism in euglycemic conditions, and may explain the higher prevalence of excess adiposity in the newborns of obese women.

YAP1 nuclear efflux and transcriptional reprograming follow membrane diminution upon VSV-G-induced cell fusion.

Cells in many tissues, such as bone, muscle, and placenta, fuse into syncytia to acquire new functions and transcriptional programs. While it is known that fused cells are specialized, it is unclear whether cell-fusion itself contributes to programmatic-changes that generate the new cellular state. Here, we address this by employing a fusogen-mediated, cell-fusion system to create syncytia from undifferentiated cells. RNA-Seq analysis reveals VSV-G-induced cell fusion precedes transcriptional changes. To gain mechanistic insights, we measure the plasma membrane surface area after cell-fusion and observe it diminishes through increases in endocytosis. Consequently, glucose transporters internalize, and cytoplasmic glucose and ATP transiently decrease. This reduced energetic state activates AMPK, which inhibits YAP1, causing transcriptional-reprogramming and cell-cycle arrest. Impairing either endocytosis or AMPK activity prevents YAP1 inhibition and cell-cycle arrest after fusion. Together, these data demonstrate plasma membrane diminishment upon cell-fusion causes transient nutrient stress that may promote transcriptional-reprogramming independent from extrinsic cues.

Maternal respiratory SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancy is associated with a robust inflammatory response at the maternal-fetal interface.

BACKGROUND: Pregnant women are at increased risk for severe outcomes from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but the pathophysiology underlying this increased morbidity and its potential effect on the developing fetus is not well understood. METHODS: We assessed placental histology, ACE2 expression, and viral and immune dynamics at the term placenta in pregnant women with and without respiratory severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. FINDINGS: The majority (13 of 15) of placentas analyzed had no detectable viral RNA. ACE2 was detected by immunohistochemistry in syncytiotrophoblast cells of the normal placenta during early pregnancy but was rarely seen in healthy placentas at full term, suggesting that low ACE2 expression may protect the term placenta from viral infection. Using immortalized cell lines and primary isolated placental cells, we found that cytotrophoblasts, the trophoblast stem cells and precursors to syncytiotrophoblasts, rather than syncytiotrophoblasts or Hofbauer cells, are most vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro. To better understand potential immune mechanisms shielding placental cells from infection in vivo, we performed bulk and single-cell transcriptomics analyses and found that the maternal-fetal interface of SARS-CoV-2-infected women exhibited robust immune responses, including increased activation of natural killer (NK) and T cells, increased expression of interferon-related genes, as well as markers associated with pregnancy complications such as preeclampsia. CONCLUSIONS: SARS-CoV-2 infection in late pregnancy is associated with immune activation at the maternal-fetal interface even in the absence of detectable local viral invasion. FUNDING: NIH (T32GM007205, F30HD093350, K23MH118999, R01AI157488, U01DA040588) and Fast Grant funding support from Emergent Ventures at the Mercatus Center.

SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancy is associated with robust inflammatory response at the maternal-fetal interface.

Pregnant women appear to be at increased risk for severe outcomes associated with COVID-19, but the pathophysiology underlying this increased morbidity and its potential impact on the developing fetus is not well understood. In this study of pregnant women with and without COVID-19, we assessed viral and immune dynamics at the placenta during maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection. Amongst uninfected women, ACE2 was detected by immunohistochemistry in syncytiotrophoblast cells of the normal placenta during early pregnancy but was rarely seen in healthy placentas at full term. Term placentas from women infected with SARS-CoV-2, however, displayed a significant increase in ACE2 levels. Using immortalized cell lines and primary isolated placental cells, we determined the vulnerability of various placental cell types to direct infection by SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Yet, despite the susceptibility of placental cells to SARS-CoV-2 infection, viral RNA was detected in the placentas of only a subset (~13%) of women in this cohort. Through single cell transcriptomic analyses, we found that the maternal-fetal interface of SARS-CoV-2-infected women exhibited markers associated with pregnancy complications, such as preeclampsia, and robust immune responses, including increased activation of placental NK and T cells and increased expression of interferon-related genes. Overall, this study suggests that SARS-CoV-2 is associated with immune activation at the maternal-fetal interface even in the absence of detectable local viral invasion. While this likely represents a protective mechanism shielding the placenta from infection, inflammatory changes in the placenta may also contribute to poor pregnancy outcomes and thus warrant further investigation.

Peri-implantation cytokine profile differs between singleton and twin IVF pregnancies.

PROBLEM: It is unknown whether maternal cytokine production differs between twin and singleton gestations in the implantation phase. A difference in maternal serum cytokine concentrations in twins would imply a dose-response to the invading embryos, as opposed to a general immune reaction. METHOD OF STUDY: A prospective longitudinal cohort of women aged 18-45 at an academic fertility center undergoing in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) underwent routine collection of serial serum samples starting 9 days after ET and then approximately every 48 hours thereafter. Cryopreserved aliquots of these samples were assayed for interleukin-10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) using the SimplePlex immunoassay platform. Pregnancies were followed until delivery. Serial measures of serum concentrations of IL-10, CXCL10, and TNF-α in singleton or di-di twin pregnancies from 9 to 15 days after IVF-ET were compared. RESULTS: Maternal serum levels of CXCL10 are significantly lower in women with di-di twin pregnancies in early implantation compared to those with singleton gestation (day 9-11, P = .02). Serum levels of TNF-α and IL-10 were comparable at all studied time points (P > .05). CONCLUSION: Maternal serum levels of CXCL10 are significantly lower in the earliest implantation phase in di-di twins compared to singleton conceptions. Given the known anti-angiogenic role of CXCL10, we hypothesize that lower CXCL10 levels in twin implantations allow an environment that is conducive for the greater vascularization required for the establishment of dual placentation in di-di twins.

Acetaminophen Attenuates invasion and alters the expression of extracellular matrix enzymes and vascular factors in human first trimester trophoblast cells.

Acetaminophen is one of the most common medications taken during pregnancy, considered safe for maternal health and fetal development. However, recent epidemiological studies have associated prenatal acetaminophen use with several developmental disorders in offspring. As acetaminophen can freely cross into and through the placenta, epidemiological associations with prenatal acetaminophen use may reflect direct actions on the fetus and/or the impact of altered placental functions. In the absence of rigorous mechanistic studies, our understanding of how prenatal acetaminophen exposure can cause long-term effects in offspring is limited. The objective of this study was to determine whether acetaminophen can alter key functions of a major placental cell type by utilizing immortalized human first trimester trophoblast cells. This study employed a comparative analysis with the nonsteroidal, anti-inflammatory drug aspirin, which has established effects in first trimester trophoblast cells. We report that immortalized trophoblast cells express the target proteins of acetaminophen and aspirin: cyclooxygenase (COX) -1 and -2. Unlike aspirin, acetaminophen significantly repressed the expression of angiogenesis and vascular remodeling genes in HTR-8/SVneo cells. Moreover, acetaminophen impaired trophoblast invasion by over 80%, while aspirin had no effect on invasion. Acetaminophen exposure reduced the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9 and increased the expression of tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases 2, leading to an imbalance in the ratio of proteolytic enzymes. Finally, a bioinformatic approach identified novel acetaminophen-responsive gene networks associated with key trophoblast functions and disease. Together these results suggest that prenatal acetaminophen use may interfere with critical trophoblast functions early in gestation, which may subsequently impact fetal development.

NLRP3 inflammasome function and pyroptotic cell death in human placental Hofbauer cells.

Alterations in the number and protein/gene expression of Hofbauer cells (HBCs) may play a role in microbial-driven/cytokine-mediated placental inflammation, and in subsequent pregnancy complications such as villitis, histologic chorioamnionitis, and the fetal inflammatory response syndrome. Pyroptosis is an inflammatory form of cell death mediated by the inflammasome, a multi-protein complex which drives the processing and secretion of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1ß). Pyroptosis can be triggered by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in non-placental macrophages through activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. However, the role of inflammasome activation and pyroptosis in HBC pathophysiology remains unclear. HBCs isolated from human term placentas were treated with or without LPS or ATP, alone or in combination. Treatment of HBCs with both LPS and ATP induced the rapid secretion of high levels of IL-1ß and at the same time, cell death associated with nuclear condensation and cellular swelling. HBC treatment with both LPS and ATP induced caspase-1 activation, gasdermin D (GSDMD) cleavage, which mediates pyroptosis, and IL-1ß processing. Caspase-1 activation, GSDMD cleavage, IL-1ß processing, and IL-1ß secretion were all significantly reduced following NLRP3 knockdown; inhibition of caspase-1; and inhibition of P2X7, the receptor that mediates K+ efflux. Together, our data indicate that LPS and ATP treatment stimulated NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis in HBCs leading to the rapid release of IL-1ß. Since the localization of HBCs confers a unique ability to influence microbial-associated placental and fetal inflammation, these studies suggest a key role for the inflammasome and pyroptosis in mediating HBC driven inflammation.

Zika Virus-Infected Decidual Cells Elicit a Gestational Age-Dependent Innate Immune Response and Exaggerate Trophoblast Zika Permissiveness: Implication for Vertical Transmission.

Vertical transmission of the Zika virus (ZIKV) causes severe fetal defects, but the exact pathogenic mechanism is unclear. We identified up to a 10,480-fold higher expression of viral attachment factors AXL, GAS6, and PROS1 and a 3880-fold increase in ZIKV infectiousness/propagation in human term decidual stromal cells versus trophoblasts. Moreover, levels of viral attachment factors and ZIKV are significantly increased, whereas expression of innate immune response genes are significantly decreased, in human first trimester versus term decidual cells. ZIKV-infected decidual cell supernatants increased cytotrophoblasts infection up to 252-fold compared with directly infected cytotrophoblasts. Tizoxanide treatment efficiently inhibited Zika infection in both maternal and fetal cells. We conclude that ZIKV permissiveness, as well as innate immune responsiveness of human decidual cells, are gestational age dependent, and decidual cells augment ZIKV infection of primary human cytotrophoblast cultures, which are otherwise ZIKV resistant. Human decidual cells may act as reservoirs for trimester-dependent placental transmission of ZIKV, accounting for the higher Zika infection susceptibility and more severe fetal sequelae observed in early versus late pregnancy. Moreover, tizoxanide is a promising agent in preventing perinatal Zika transmission as well as other RNA viruses such as coronavirus.

Trophoblast-secreted soluble-PD-L1 modulates macrophage polarization and function.

Decidual macrophages are in close contact with trophoblast cells during placenta development, and an appropriate crosstalk between these cellular compartments is crucial for the establishment and maintenance of a healthy pregnancy. During different phases of gestation, macrophages undergo dynamic changes to adjust to the different stages of fetal development. Trophoblast-secreted factors are considered the main modulators responsible for macrophage differentiation and function. However, the phenotype of these macrophages induced by trophoblast-secreted factors and the factors responsible for their polarization has not been elucidated. In this study, we characterized the phenotype and function of human trophoblast-induced macrophages. Using in vitro models, we found that human trophoblast-educated macrophages were CD14+ CD206+ CD86- and presented an unusual transcriptional profile in response to TLR4/LPS activation characterized by the expression of type I IFN-ß expression. IFN-ß further enhances the constitutive production of soluble programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) from trophoblast cells. PD-1 blockage inhibited trophoblast-induced macrophage differentiation. Soluble PD-L1 (sPD-L1) was detected in the blood of pregnant women and increased throughout the gestation. Collectively, our data suggest the existence of a regulatory circuit at the maternal fetal interface wherein IFN-ß promotes sPD-L1 expression/secretion by trophoblast cells, which can then initiate a PD-L1/PD-1-mediated macrophage polarization toward an M2 phenotype, consequently decreasing inflammation. Macrophages then maintain the expression of sPD-L1 by the trophoblasts through IFN-ß production induced through TLR4 ligation.

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin modulates CXCL10 Expression through Histone Methylation in human decidua.

The process of implantation, trophoblast invasion and placentation demand continuous adaptation and modifications between the trophoblast (embryonic) and the decidua (maternal). Within the decidua, the maternal immune system undergoes continued changes, as the pregnancy progress, in terms of the cell population, phenotype and production of immune factors, cytokines and chemokines. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is one of the earliest hormones produced by the blastocyst and has potent immune modulatory effects, especially in relation to T cells. We hypothesized that trophoblast-derived hCG modulates the immune population present at the maternal fetal interface by modifying the cytokine profile produced by the stromal/decidual cells. Using in vitro models from decidual samples we demonstrate that hCG inhibits CXCL10 expression by inducing H3K27me3 histone methylation, which binds to Region 4 of the CXCL10 promoter, thereby suppressing its expression. hCG-induced histone methylation is mediated through EZH2, a functional member of the PRC2 complex. Regulation of CXCL10 expression has a major impact on the capacity of endometrial stromal cells to recruit CD8 cells. We demonstrate the existence of a cross talk between the placenta (hCG) and the decidua (CXCL10) in the control of immune cell recruitment. Alterations in this immune regulatory function, such as during infection, will have detrimental effects on the success of the pregnancy.

Herpesvirus-infected Hofbauer cells activate endothelial cells through an IL-1ß-dependent mechanism.

INTRODUCTION: Placental viral infections are associated with fetal inflammation and adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, there have been limited studies on how placental macrophages in the villous and adjacent fetal umbilical endothelial cells respond to a viral insult. This study aimed to evaluate the communication between Hofbauer cells (HBCs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) during a viral infection. METHODS: HBCs were either uninfected or infected with the γ-herpesvirus, MHV-68, and the conditioned medium (CM) collected. HUVECs were exposed to HBC CM and the levels of the pro-neutrophilic response markers: IL-8; E-selectin; intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1); and vascular adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) measured by ELISA and qPCR. The role of HBC-derived IL-1ß was investigated using an IL-1ß blocking antibody (Ab) or IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra). RESULTS: MHV-68 infection of HBCs induced a significant increase in IL-1ß secretion. CM from infected HBCs induced HUVEC expression of IL-8, E-selectin, VCAM-1, ICAM-1 mRNA, and secretion of IL-8. The HUVEC response to the CM of MHV-infected HBCs was inhibited by a neutralizing IL-1ß Ab and by IL-1Ra. DISCUSSION: Virally-induced HBC IL-1ß activates HUVECs to generate a pro-neutrophilic response. This novel cell-cell communication pathway may play an important role in the genesis of fetal inflammation associated with placental viral infection.

Thermal stability of cytokines: A review.

BACKGROUND: The role of cytokines in various disease states is a burgeoning field of academic study and clinical application, however there are no consensus documents on how certain cytokines should be stored prior to quantification. This information is especially of interest to researchers assembling a biobank or clinicians who have to transport specimens to a different location in order to be tested. OBJECTIVE: To review the literature and synthesize prior findings on cytokine storage and freeze/thaw stability. DESIGN: We searched PubMed for articles related to cytokine storage stability. All articles were analyzed for cytokines studied, source of reported cytokine concentration (i.e., human whole blood or serum, concentrations from other species or bodily sources were excluded), and reported statistical results. RESULTS: We identified and synthesized results of 23 peer-reviewed articles which published data on the storage and freeze/thaw stability of 33 different cytokines and chemokines. CONCLUSION: There is a wide variety of reported cytokine storage and freeze/thaw stability. Interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha are the most widely studied cytokines in regard to temperature stability. In a few cytokines, a clear consensus can be reached as to storage safety at particular temperatures, but in most, more research needs to be done and we advise the clinician or researcher to use caution in interpreting cytokine concentration results after a long period of storage or several freeze/thaw cycles.

IL-10 to TNFα ratios throughout early first trimester can discriminate healthy pregnancies from pregnancy losses.

PROBLEM: Embryo implantation and placentation require a careful immunological balance. Cytokines such as IL-10 and TNFα have been implicated as markers of dysregulation, but have only been studied at a single time point or after a pregnancy loss. Our objective was to determine normative patterns of serum levels of IL-10 and TNFα and their ratio throughout the first trimester in healthy pregnancies and to determine if this pattern differs from pregnancy loss. METHOD OF STUDY: Two prospective longitudinal cohorts of gravidae including in vitro fertilization (IVF) and naturally conceived pregnancies with serial blood draws. Cytokines were assayed using Simple Plex. In the IVF cohort, we monitored from the implantation day up to 6 weeks of gestation; whereas in the naturally conceived cohort, sample collection began at 4 weeks and throughout the whole first trimester. RESULTS: IL-10 concentrations in normal pregnancies were significantly higher than in pregnancies ending in a loss starting at 6-8 weeks of gestation, while TNFα concentrations were significantly lower in normal than in pregnancies ending in a loss starting at 3-5 of gestation weeks. The IL-10 to TNFα ratio in normal pregnancies was significantly higher from 4 to 9 weeks compared to pregnancies that were lost (t test, P < .05). Changes were observed before any symptoms of miscarriage were present. CONCLUSION: We provide evidences of differences in early immunomodulation in healthy pregnancies vs those destined to end in first-trimester loss. The ratio of IL-10 to TNFα rises significantly higher in viable pregnancies as early as 4.5 weeks compared to pregnancies loss.

In Vitro Assays to Evaluate the Migration, Invasion, and Proliferation of Immortalized Human First-trimester Trophoblast Cell Lines.

Cell movement is a critical property of trophoblasts during placental development and early pregnancy. The significance of proper trophoblast migration and invasion is demonstrated by pregnancy disorders such as pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction, which are associated with inadequate trophoblast invasion of the maternal vasculature. Unfortunately, our understanding of the mechanisms by which the placenta develops from migrating trophoblasts is limited. In vitro analysis of cell migration via the scratch assay is a useful tool in identifying factors that regulate trophoblast migratory capacity. However, this assay alone does not define the cellular changes that can result in altered cell migration. This protocol describes three different in vitro assays that are used collectively to evaluate trophoblast cell movement: the scratch assay, the invasion assay, and the proliferation assay. The protocols described here may also be modified for use in other cell lines to quantify cell movement in response to stimuli. These methods allow investigators to identify individual factors that contribute to the cell movement and provide a thorough examination of potential mechanisms underlying apparent changes in cell migration.

Differential gene expression during placentation in pregnancies conceived with different fertility treatments compared with spontaneous pregnancies.

OBJECTIVE: To identify differences in the transcriptomic profiles during placentation from pregnancies conceived spontaneously vs. those with infertility using non-in vitro fertilization (IVF) fertility treatment (NIFT) or IVF. DESIGN: Cohort study. SETTING: Academic medical center. PATIENT(S): Women undergoing chorionic villus sampling at gestational age 11-13 weeks (n = 141), with pregnancies that were conceived spontaneously (n = 74), with NIFT (n = 33), or with IVF (n = 34), resulting in the delivery of viable offspring. INTERVENTION(S): Collection of chorionic villus samples from women who conceived spontaneously, with NIFT, or with IVF for gene expression analysis using RNA sequencing. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Baseline maternal, paternal, and fetal demographics, maternal medical conditions, pregnancy complications, and outcomes. Differential gene expression of first-trimester placenta. RESULT(S): There were few differences in the transcriptome of first-trimester placenta from NIFT, IVF, and spontaneous pregnancies. There was one protein-coding differentially expressed gene (DEG) between the spontaneous and infertility groups, CACNA1I, one protein-coding DEG between the spontaneous and IVF groups, CACNA1I, and five protein-coding DEGs between the NIFT and IVF groups, SLC18A2, CCL21, FXYD2, PAEP, and DNER. CONCLUSION(S): This is the first and largest study looking at transcriptomic profiles of first-trimester placenta demonstrating similar transcriptomic profiles in pregnancies conceived using NIFT or IVF and spontaneous conceptions. Gene expression differences found to be highest in the NIFT group suggest that the underlying infertility, in addition to treatment-related factors, may contribute to the observed gene expression profiles.

Excess glucose induce trophoblast inflammation and limit cell migration through HMGB1 activation of Toll-Like receptor 4.

PROBLEM: Hyperglycemia increases the risk of preeclampsia. Hyperglycemia induces a placental trophoblast inflammatory (IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8), antiangiogenic (sFlt-1, sEndoglin), and anti-migratory profile. The IL-1ß response is mediated via inflammasome activation by the damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP), uric acid. The objective of this study was to determine the role of high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), a DAMP that activates Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), in human first trimester trophoblast responses to hyperglycemia. The trophoblast response to excess glucose under different oxygen tensions was also investigated. METHOD OF STUDY: The human first trimester trophoblast cell line (Sw.71) was exposed to glucose mimicking normoglycemia (5 mmol/L) and hyperglycemia (10 mmol/L), either alone or with the TLR4 antagonist, LPS-RS; or the HMGB1 inhibitor, glycyrrhizin. Cells were also treated with glucose under hyperoxic (21% O2 ), normoxic (8% O2 ), and hypoxic (2% O2 ) conditions. Cell-free supernatants were assayed by ELISA and bioassays for inflammatory: IL-1ß, IL-6, and IL-8; inflammasome-associated: uric acid and caspase-1; angiogenic: sEndoglin, sFlt-1, and PlGF; and the DAMP, HMGB1. Cell migration was measured using a two-chamber colormetric assay. RESULTS: Excess glucose triggered a trophoblast sterile inflammatory IL-8 and antimigratory response through HMGB1 activation of TLR4. The IL-1ß and sFlt-1/PlGF response was TLR4-mediated, but HMGB1-independent, suggesting another DAMP may be involved. Hyperoxia rather than normoxia or hypoxia was a major driver of trophoblast dysfunction in response to excess glucose. CONCLUSION: The findings from this study indicate a novel mechanism by which hyperglycemia may impact trophoblast function, early placentation, and ultimately, pregnancy outcome.