Analyzing body dissatisfaction and gender dysphoria in the context of minority stress among transgender adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Gender dysphoria among transgender adolescents has predominantly been examined in relation to body dissatisfaction. While in adult transgender samples, body dissatisfaction is higher than in cisgender controls, this has so far rarely been investigated for adolescents. In the context of a cisnormative society, the impact of influences from the social environment on body dissatisfaction and gender dysphoria has been neglected in research. Therefore, this study aimed to (1) provide a detailed analysis of body dissatisfaction among young transgender people and (2) investigate whether body dissatisfaction and gender dysphoria are associated with experiences of minority stress such as trans hostility and poor peer relations (PPR). METHODS: The paper presents a cross-sectional study among a sample of transgender adolescents, presenting at a specialized outpatient counseling clinic (N = 99; age M = 15.36, SD = 1.85). First, body dissatisfaction (assessed by the Body-Image-Scale; BIS), was explored and compared to data from a population-based control group of cisgender peers (N = 527; age M = 14.43, SD = 0.97). Second, within a clinic-referred transgender subsample (n = 74), associations between body dissatisfaction and gender dysphoria (measured by Utrecht Gender Dysphoria Scale; UGDS), PPR (measured by the Youth-Self-Report; YSR-R), and trans hostile experiences (assessed in clinical interview) were examined by correlations, t-tests and multivariate regression. RESULTS: Transgender adolescents reported more body dissatisfaction than cisgender peers. The dissatisfaction with sex characteristics, non-hormonal reactive body regions and the total score for body dissatisfaction were positively related with gender dysphoria. The majority had experienced trans hostility in the present and/or past (54.1%) and PPR (63.5%). More body dissatisfaction was correlated with more PPR regarding visible body parts i.e., hair, overall appearance and muscles, whilst PPR and gender dysphoria were not associated. Transgender adolescents who experienced trans hostility showed higher gender dysphoria and PPR, but not more body dissatisfaction. In multiple regression, trans hostility predicted gender dysphoria, whilst age and PPR predicted body dissatisfaction. DISCUSSION: Experiences of minority-stress differentially interact with body dissatisfaction and gender dysphoria among transgender adolescents. Social correlates of body dissatisfaction and gender dysphoria must be considered when working with young transgender people.

Genetic evidence for polygynandry in the black-striped pipefish Syngnathus abaster: a microsatellite-based parentage analysis.

Sexual selection theory predicts that, in organisms with reversed sex roles, more polyandrous species exhibit higher levels of sexual dimorphism. In the family Syngnathidae (pipefish, seahorses, and seadragons), males provide all parental care by carrying developing embryos on their ventral surfaces, and females develop secondary sex characters. Syngnathids exhibit a variety of genetic mating patterns, making them an ideal group to test predictions of sexual selection theory. Here, we describe the mating system of the black-striped pipefish Syngnathus abaster, using 4 highly variable microsatellites to analyze parentage of 102 embryos. Results revealed that 1) both sexes mate multiple times over the course of a pregnancy (polygynandrous mating system), 2) eggs are spatially segregated by maternity within each brood pouch, and 3) larger females have higher mating success (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test; P < 0.05). Together with similar studies of other syngnathid species, our results support the hypothesis that the mating system is related to the intensity of sexual dimorphism.

The fracture gap size influences the local vascularization and tissue differentiation in callus healing.

BACKGROUND: Revascularization of a fracture depends on fracture stability and fracture gap conditions. The aim of the study was to determine quantitatively the revascularization and tissue differentiation in an animal model with different fracture gaps and controlled biomechanical conditions. MATERIALS AND METHOD: The study was performed on ten sheep with an osteotomy on the right metatarsal. The fracture was stabilized by an external fixator that allowed adjustable axial interfragmentary movement. Two groups of five sheep each were adjusted to a medium sized gap (M, 2.1 mm) and a large gap (L, 5.7 mm) under comparable interfragmentary strain (30-32%). The animals were killed after 9 weeks, and the metatarsals were prepared for undecalcified histology and analysis of tissue differentiation and vessel distribution. RESULTS: Group M showed significantly more revascularization (M=1.62, L=0.85 vessels/mm2), more bone formation (M=37.2%, L=13.9%) and less fibrocartilage tissue (M=18.1%, L=39.1%) than group L. Larger vessels (>40 microm) were found mainly in the medullary channel, and smaller vessels (<20 microm) mainly in the peripheral callus. Histologically, group M showed partial bony bridging of the osteotomy gap, and the group L had delayed healing. CONCLUSION: A good reduction of a fracture with small interfragmentary gaps is important for its revascularization and healing.

The effect of mechanical stability on local vascularization and tissue differentiation in callus healing.

To investigate the influence of the stability of an osteotomy fixation on the local vascularization and tissue differentiation in callus healing, a transverse osteotomy of the right metatarsal with a gap size of 2 mm was performed in 10 sheep and stabilized with an external fixator. This fixator permitted a defined axial movement. Two groups of 5 sheep were each operated upon to allow 0.2 mm (group A) or 1 mm (group B) of axial movement. Nine weeks after surgery, the callus was dissected and histological sections prepared. The type of tissue and the vessel distribution were determined. Larger interfragmentary movements led to significantly more fibrocartilage (small axial movement A: 6.2%, large axial movement B: 21.6%) and significantly less bone formation (A: 38.2%, B: 26.3%). On average, and particularly close to the periosteum the number of vessels in the callus healing area was greater in the group with smaller movements than in the group with larger movements. There was a significant difference between the distribution of small (< 20 microm) and large (> 40 microm) vessels across the whole healing area for both groups. Whereas the large vessels showed maximum density in the medullary cavity, the small vessels showed the highest frequency in the peripheral part of the periosteal callus.