Effects of 6-Week Motor-Cognitive Agility Training on Football Test Performance in Adult Amateur Players - A Three-Armed Randomized Controlled Trial.

Agility, defined as the ability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events, constitutes a central performance component in football. Existing agility training approaches often focus on change of direction that does not reflect the complex motor-cognitive demands on the pitch. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of a novel motor-cognitive dual-task agility training (Multiple-object tracking integrated into agility training) on agility and football-specific test performance parameters, compared to agility and a change of direction (COD) training. Adult male amateur football players (n = 42; age: 27±6; height: 181±7cm; weight: 80±12kg) were randomly allocated to one of the three intervention groups (COD, agility, agility + multiple object tracking). The Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), a dribbling test with/without cognitive task as well as the Random Star Run (with/without ball) and the modified T-Test were assessed before and after a 6-week training period. Time effects within the T-Test (F = 83.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and dribbling test without cognitive task (F = 23.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.38) with improvements of all intervention groups (p < 0.05) were found. Dribbling with cognitive task revealed a time effect (F = 7.8; p = 0.008; η2 = 0.17), with improvements exclusively in the agility and dual-task agility groups (p < 0.05). Random Star Run with and without ball exhibited a time (F = 38.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.5; F = 82.7; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and interaction effect (F = 14.14; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.42; F = 27.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.59), with improvements for the agility and dual-task agility groups. LSPT showed no time, group or interaction effect. The effects of change of direction training are limited to change of direction and dribbling test performance within preplanned scenarios. In contrast, motor-cognitive agility interventions result in notable enhancements in football-specific and agility tests, incorporating decision-making and multitasking components. No differences were observed between agility and agility + multiple object tracking. To achieve a transfer to game-relevant performance, coaches should focus on integrating cognitive challenges into motor training.

Validity of a motor-cognitive dual-task agility test in elite youth football players.

Agility, as the ability to react rapidly to unforeseen events, is an essential component of football performance. However, existing agility diagnostics often do not reflect the complex motor-cognitive interaction required on the field. Therefore, this study evaluates the criterion and ecological validity of a newly developed motor-cognitive dual-task agility approach in elite youth football players and compare it to a traditional reactive agility test. Twenty-one male youth elite football players (age:17.4 ±0 .6; BMI:23.2 ± 1.8) performed two agility tests (reactive agility, reactive agility with integrated multiple-object-tracking (Dual-Task Agility)) on the SKILLCOURT system. Performance was correlated to motor (sprint, jump), cognitive (executive functions, attention, reaction speed) and football specific tests (Loughborough soccer passing test (LSPT)) as well as indirect game metrics (coaches' rating, playing time). Reactive agility performance showed moderate correlations to attention and choice reaction times (r = 0.48-0.63), as well as to the LSPT (r = 0.51). The dual-task agility test revealed moderate relationships with attention and reaction speed (r = 0.47-0.58), executive functions (r = 0.45-0.63), as well as the game metrics (r = 0.51-0.61). Finally, the dual-task agility test significantly differentiated players based on their coaches' rating and playing time using a median split (p < 0.05; d = 0.8-1.28). Motor-cognitive agility performance in elite youth football players seems to be primarily determined by cognitive functions. The integration of multiple object tracking into reactive agility testing seems to be an ecologically valid approach for performance diagnostics in youth football.

Validity of the SKILLCOURT® technology for agility and cognitive performance assessment in healthy active adults.

Background/Objectives: Agility and cognitive abilities are typically assessed separately by different motor and cognitive tests. While many agility tests lack a reactive decision-making component, cognitive assessments are still mainly based on computer-based or paper-pencil tests with low ecological validity. This study is the first to validate the novel SKILLCOURT technology as an integrated assessment tool for agility and cognitive-motor performance. Methods: Thirty-two healthy adults performed agility (Star Run), reactive agility (Random Star Run) and cognitive-motor (executive function test, 1-back decision making) performance assessments on the SKILLCOURT. Cognitive-motor tests included lower limb responses in a standing position to increase the ecological validity when compared to computer-based tests. Test results were compared to established motor and agility tests (countermovement jump, 10 m linear sprint, T-agility tests) as well as computer-based cognitive assessments (choice-reaction, Go-NoGo, task switching, memory span). Correlation and multiple regression analyses quantified the relation between SKILLCOURT performance and motor and cognitive outcomes. Results: Star Run and Random Star Run tests were best predicted by linear sprint (r = 0.68, p < 0.001) and T-agility performance (r = 0.77, p < 0.001), respectively. The executive function test performance was well explained by computer-based assessments on choice reaction speed and cognitive flexibility (r = 0.64, p < 0.001). The 1-back test on the SKILLCOURT revealed moderate but significant correlations with the computer-based assessments (r = 0.47, p = 0.007). Conclusion: The results support the validity of the SKILLCOURT technology for agility and cognitive assessments in more ecologically valid cognitive-motor tasks. This technology provides a promising alternative to existing performance assessment tools.

Stroboscopic Eyewear Applied During Warm-Up Does Not Provide Additional Benefits to the Sport-Specific Reaction Speed in Highly Trained Table Tennis Athletes.

PURPOSE: While long-term training with stroboscopic eyewear suggests performance-enhancing effects on visuomotor abilities, it remains unclear whether a short-term application, for example, during a warm-up, results in immediate performance gains. This study evaluated potential performance-enhancing effects of stroboscopic eyewear applied during warm-up on reaction speed that may provide athletes an edge in visuomotor-demanding sports. METHODS: Twenty-eight international-level table tennis athletes participated in this study. Participants performed their individual 10-minute table-tennis-specific warm-up under normal visual conditions and with stroboscopic eyewear. Prior to and after the warm-up, visuomotor reaction time was assessed in a sport-specific reaction test where athletes had to return 30 table tennis balls played by a ball machine at high speed to their backhand side. Reaction time was determined as the interval between ball output and movement onset as triggered by a mechanical switch. Furthermore, the time between ball-table contact and ball-racket contact (hit time) was analyzed as an indicator of how early the athletes intercepted the ball. RESULTS: Reaction time significantly improved following the warm-up (P < .001, ηp2=.393). However, there was no additional benefit of the stroboscopic eyewear (P = .338, ηp2=.034). No changes after the warm-up were observed for hit time (P = .246, ηp2=.055). CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that warm-up facilitated visuomotor reaction speed; however, stroboscopic eyewear did not provide additional positive effects when compared to a warm-up under normal visual conditions. While shutter glasses may be useful for training over longer periods, short-term positive effects were not supported in this study.

Reliability and Usefulness of the SKILLCOURT as a Computerized Agility and Motor-Cognitive Testing Tool.

INTRODUCTION: Agility and cognitive skills are essential in sports. However, standardized agility assessment tools often lack a reactive component, and cognitive assessments are performed using computer-based or paper-pencil tests. The SKILLCOURT is a newly developed testing and training device allowing agility and cognitive assessments in a more ecologically valid setting. This study evaluated the reliability and sensitivity to changes in performance (usefulness) of the SKILLCOURT technology. METHODS: In a test-retest (7 d, 3 months) design, 27 healthy adults (♀ = 12; age, 24.9 ± 3.3 yr) performed three trials of agility (Star Run, Random Star Run) and motor-cognitive tests (1-back, 2-back, executive function). Absolute and relative intersession and intrasession reliability was determined using the intraclass coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV). A repeated-measures ANOVA was applied to identify potential learning effects between trials and test sessions. The smallest worthwhile change and typical error (TE) were calculated to investigate the intrasession and intersession usefulness of the tests. RESULTS: Agility tests revealed good relative and absolute intersession (ICC, 83-0.89; CV, 2.7%-4.1%) and intrasession (ICC, 7-0.84; CV, 2.4%-5.5%) reliability accompanied by adequate usefulness from test day 3 onward. Motor-cognitive tests showed good relative intersession reliability (ICC, 0.7-0.77) with marginal CV values (4.8%-8.6%). Adequate intrasession reliability and usefulness can be assumed from test day 2 (1-back test, executive function test) and day 3 (2-back test) onward. For all tests, learning effects were observed within and compared with test day 1. CONCLUSIONS: The SKILLCOURT is a reliable diagnostic tool for assessing reactive agility and motor-cognitive performance. Because of learning effects, sufficient familiarization with the tests is required when used for diagnostic purposes.

Stroboscopic vision prolongs visual motion perception in the central nervous system.

Stroboscopic training has repeatedly been shown to improve visual and visuomotor performance in sports. Although recent research suggests that stroboscopic vision puts a training stimulus to the central nervous system, the underlying mechanism how it affects motion perception and processing in the brain is still unknown. Twenty-six participants performed a computer-based simple reaction test in response to a visual motion stimulus under normal (baseline) and stroboscopic conditions (5 Hz frequency, 40% duty cycle) (stroboscopic). A third condition under normal vision intermittently stopped the motion stimulus at the same frequency and duty cycle as in the stroboscopic condition. This condition controlled for the amount of visual motion information independent of the shutter glasses (screen shutter) and provided information about the effect of luminance changes induced by the stroboscopic eyewear. A 64-channel EEG was recorded to determine the amplitude and latency of the N2 component as a correlate of visual motion perception in the motion-sensitive visual area MT. Reaction time under stroboscopic conditions was significantly delayed when compared to both the baseline (p < 0.001) and screen shutter (p < 0.001) conditions. This was accompanied by a significantly prolonged N2 latency (p < 0.001) and lower N2 amplitude (p < 0.001) with the shutter glasses. There was no difference in reaction time or N2 amplitude/latency between the baseline and screen shutter condition (p ≥ 0.176). Stroboscopic eyewear delays the speed of visual motion perception and processing in the central nervous system and reduces the visuomotor reaction speed. This may form the neurophysiological basis for performance gains following stroboscopic training.

Low prevalence of relative age effects in Luxembourg's male and female youth football.

The relative age effect (RAE) is a well-established phenomenon in football. However, while the majority of previous studies focussed on established football nations, it remains unclear if the constraint of a limited population of soccer players in smaller countries associated with less strict selection procedures may reduce the risk of RAE. This study aims to investigate the RAE in Luxembourg that follows an 'open-door' selection policy in youth football due to the limited pool of players. Birthdates from all licensed and actively playing Luxembourgish youth footballers including all players of the youth national teams (396 girls and 10981 boys) competing in the season 2018/2019 were analysed and categorised into birth quarters and semesters. To further investigate a performance dependence of the RAE in amateur leagues, success was determined based on the teams' rankings at the end of the season. Differences between observed and expected birthdate distributions were calculated across all licensed players and age groups, within the national teams, and for the top- and bottom-tier football teams using chi-square statistics. While a RAE was absent across all age groups (except U7), significant RAEs with high effect sizes were observed in the top-level and national teams. These findings contrast the substantial RAE effects in large football nations and suggest that open selection systems might reflect an environmental constraint that limit the prevalence of RAE in football. Further, this study indicates that a performance dependence of the RAE is not limited to high level football but already occurs on an amateur level.

Auditory Information Accelerates the Visuomotor Reaction Speed of Elite Badminton Players in Multisensory Environments.

Although vision is the dominating sensory system in sports, many situations require multisensory integration. Faster processing of auditory information in the brain may facilitate time-critical abilities such as reaction speed however previous research was limited by generic auditory and visual stimuli that did not consider audio-visual characteristics in ecologically valid environments. This study investigated the reaction speed in response to sport-specific monosensory (visual and auditory) and multisensory (audio-visual) stimulation. Neurophysiological analyses identified the neural processes contributing to differences in reaction speed. Nineteen elite badminton players participated in this study. In a first recording phase, the sound profile and shuttle speed of smash and drop strokes were identified on a badminton court using high-speed video cameras and binaural recordings. The speed and sound characteristics were transferred into auditory and visual stimuli and presented in a lab-based experiment, where participants reacted in response to sport-specific monosensory or multisensory stimulation. Auditory signal presentation was delayed by 26 ms to account for realistic audio-visual signal interaction on the court. N1 and N2 event-related potentials as indicators of auditory and visual information perception/processing, respectively were identified using a 64-channel EEG. Despite the 26 ms delay, auditory reactions were significantly faster than visual reactions (236.6 ms vs. 287.7 ms, p < 0.001) but still slower when compared to multisensory stimulation (224.4 ms, p = 0.002). Across conditions response times to smashes were faster when compared to drops (233.2 ms, 265.9 ms, p < 0.001). Faster reactions were paralleled by a lower latency and higher amplitude of the auditory N1 and visual N2 potentials. The results emphasize the potential of auditory information to accelerate the reaction time in sport-specific multisensory situations. This highlights auditory processes as a promising target for training interventions in racquet sports.

The ability to increase the base of support and recover stability is limited in its generalisation for different balance perturbation tasks.

BACKGROUND: The assessment of stability recovery performance following perturbations contributes to the determination of fall resisting skills. This study investigated the association between stability recovery performances in two perturbation tasks (lean-and-release versus tripping). METHODS: Healthy adults (12 young: 24 ± 3 years; 21 middle-aged: 53 ± 5 years; 11 old: 72 ± 5 years) were suddenly released from a forward-inclined position attempting to recover stability with a single step. In a second task, all participants experienced a mechanically induced trip during treadmill walking. To assess dynamic stability performance, the antero-posterior margin of stability (MoS), the base of support (BoS), and the rate of increase in BoS were determined at each foot touchdown (TD) for both tasks. RESULTS: Only weak to moderate correlations in dynamic stability performance parameters were found between the two tasks (0.568 > r > 0.305, 0.001 < p < 0.04). A separation of participants according to the number of steps required to regain stability in the lean-and-release task revealed that multiple- (more than one step) compared to single-steppers showed a significantly lower MoS at TD (p = 0.003; g = 1.151), lower BoS at TD (p = 0.019; g = 0.888) and lower rate of increase in BoS until TD (p = 0.002; g = 1.212) after release. Despite these profound subgroup differences in the lean-and-release task, no differences between multiple- and single-steppers were observed in the stability recovery performance during tripping. CONCLUSION: The results provide evidence that the ability to effectively control dynamic stability following a sudden balance disturbance in adults across a wide age range is limited in its generalisation for different perturbation tasks.

Visual Perception and Visuomotor Reaction Speed Are Independent of the Individual Alpha Frequency.

While the resting-state individual alpha frequency (IAF) is related to the cognitive performance and temporal resolution of visual perception, it remains unclear how it affects the neural correlates of visual perception and reaction processes. This study aimed to unravel the relation between IAF, visual perception, and visuomotor reaction time. One hundred forty-eight (148) participants (28 non-athletes, 39 table tennis players, and 81 badminton players) investigated in three previous studies were considered. During a visuomotor reaction task, the visuomotor reaction time (VMRT) and EMG onset were determined. In addition, a 64-channel EEG system identified the N2, N2-r, and BA6 negativity potentials representing the visual and motor processes related to visuomotor reactions. Resting-state individual alpha frequency (IAF) in visual and motor regions was compared based on sport experience (athletes vs. non-athletes), discipline (badminton vs. table tennis), and reaction performance (fast vs. medium vs. slow reaction time). Further, the differences in the IAF were determined in relation to the speed of neural visual (high vs. medium vs. low N2/N2-r latency) and motor (high vs. medium vs. low BA6 negativity latency). Group comparisons did not reveal any difference in the IAF between athletes and non-athletes (p = 0.352, η p 2 = 0.02) or badminton and table tennis players (p = 0.221, η p 2 = 0.02). Similarly, classification based on the behavioral or neural performance indicators did not reveal any effects on the IAF (p ≥ 0.158, η p 2 ≤ 0.027). IAF was not correlated to any of the behavioral or neural parameters (r ≤ 0.10, p ≥ 0.221). In contrast to behavioral results on cognitive performance and visual temporal resolution, the resting state IAF seemed unrelated to the visual perception and visuomotor reaction speed in simple reaction tasks. Considering the previous results on the correlations between the IAF, cognitive abilities, and temporal sampling of visual information, the results suggest that a higher IAF may facilitate the amount and frequency but not the speed of information transfer.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Lockdown on European Students' Negative Emotional Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Considerable changes to higher education approaches, as a response to the global coronavirus pandemic, has increased the stress on university students. The impact of these changes has had an effect on the negative emotional symptoms being experienced, which can lead to more severe mental health issues. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the prevalence of anxiety, depression and stress during the coronavirus lockdown. A systematic review of three electronic databases (Google Scholar, PubMed and Medline) was conducted, with 13 studies from different European countries reporting data on students and their negative emotional symptoms identified. The random-effects model was used to perform the meta-analysis on anxiety, depression and stress. The overall pooled prevalence rate was 55% (95% CI: 45-64%) for anxiety, 63% (95% CI: 52-73%) for depression and 62% (95% CI: 43-79%) for stress. The impact of the coronavirus pandemic on negative emotional symptoms has been serious with studies reporting high prevalence rates for these. Isolation, reduced social contact, duration of quarantine and restrictions, which are the characteristics of a lockdown, played an important role in increased negative emotional symptoms for students. Countries have to be aware of this situation and develop mental support strategies to mitigate the impact.

Short- and Long-Term Stroboscopic Training Effects on Visuomotor Performance in Elite Youth Sports. Part 1: Reaction and Behavior.

PURPOSE: Recent research suggests that stroboscopic training is an effective tool to improve visual and visuomotor performance. However, many studies were limited by small samples, short training interventions, inexperienced athletes, and an exclusive focus on short-term effects. This first part of the study evaluates the short- and long-term effects of stroboscopic training on visuomotor reaction speed in elite athletes. METHODS: Forty-five young elite badminton athletes participated in this study, of which 32 (13.7 yr) were included in the final data analysis. Participants were assigned to an intervention (stroboscopic vision) or control group (normal vision). Both groups performed identical badminton-specific training drills implemented into the regular training schedule. Before and after a 10-wk training period and after a 6-wk retention interval, athletes performed a laboratory reaction test to determine EMG onset and visuomotor reaction time (VMRT). In addition, a field test investigated stroboscopic training effects on the quality of ball-racquet contact and net drop performance. RESULTS: VMRT decreased immediately after stroboscopic training (pre, 251 ms; post, 238 ms; P = 0.005, d = 0.63), and reactions remained significantly faster after the retention interval (retention, 241 ms; P = 0.041, d = 0.50). Analyses on EMG onset data suggested these adaptations were attributable to the premotor rather than the motor time. VMRT remained unchanged in the control group (pre, 252 ms; post, 256; retention, 253 ms; P > 0.99). Field test performance improvements were observed for the quality of ball-racquet contact and net drop performance; however, changes were not different between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Stroboscopic training induced short- and long-term accelerations of visuomotor reaction speed in elite badminton players. Stroboscopic eyewear may be an effective training tool to accelerate visuomotor reactions in highly skilled athletes.

Short- and Long-Term Stroboscopic Training Effects on Visuomotor Performance in Elite Youth Sports. Part 2: Brain-Behavior Mechanisms.

PURPOSE: Stroboscopic training has repeatedly been shown to improve visuomotor abilities. However, although performance improvements were attributed to visual processes, information on the neurophysiological mechanisms is missing. Part 2 of this study investigated the effects of stroboscopic training on neural visual and motor functions and its contribution to training-induced changes in visuomotor reaction time. METHODS: Forty-five young elite badminton athletes participated in this study, of which 32 (age, 13.7 yr) were included in the final data analysis. Participants were assigned to an intervention (stroboscopic vision) or control group (normal vision). Before and after a 10-wk training and after a 6-wk retention period, participants performed visual perception and reaction tasks in response to visual motion stimuli. The N2 and N2-r motion onset visual-evoked potentials, its linear combination (Vlc), and the BA6 negativity potential were determined using a 64-channel EEG. RESULTS: A significant TIME-GROUP effect was observed for the Vlc score (P = 0.019, ηp2 = 0.18), indicating a lower Vlc in the intervention group. However, post hoc tests did not reach significance. Within-subject correlation analyses revealed that changes in reaction speed were related to latency changes in N2 (r = 0.59, P < 0.001), N2-r (r = -0.64, P < 0.001), and the combined Vlc (r = 0.68, P < 0.001). Regression analyses across participants including multiple (N2/N2-r) or single (Vlc) predictors provided an explained variance of >60% (N2/N2-r, r2 = 0.62; Vlc, r2 = 0.64). No training effects or correlations were observed for the BA6 negativity. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that faster visuomotor reactions after stroboscopic training are accompanied by accelerated visual perception and processing, whereas motor processes seemed to be unaffected. Stroboscopic training may be promising to specifically address the visual system in visuomotor-demanding sports.

Motion-Onset Visual Potentials Evoked in a Sport-Specific Visuomotor Reaction Task.

Although neural visual processes play a crucial role in sport, experiments have been restricted to laboratory conditions lacking ecological validity. Therefore, this study examined the feasibility of measuring visual evoked potentials in a sport-specific visuomotor task. A total of 18 international elite young table tennis athletes (mean age 12.5 years) performed a computer-based and a sport-specific visuomotor reaction task in response to radial motion-onset stimuli on a computer screen and table tennis balls played by a ball machine, respectively. A 64-channel electroencephalography system identified the N2 and N2-r motion-onset visual evoked potentials in the motion-sensitive midtemporal visual area. Visual evoked potential amplitudes were highly correlated between conditions (N2 r = .72, N2-r r = .74) although significantly lower in the sport-specific task than in the lab-based task (N2 p < .001, N2-r p < .001). The results suggest that sport-specific visual stimulation is feasible to evoke visual potentials. This emphasizes the investigation of visual processes under more ecologically valid conditions in sport and exercise science.

The Speed of Neural Visual Motion Perception and Processing Determines the Visuomotor Reaction Time of Young Elite Table Tennis Athletes.

Purpose: Recent research in adult badminton athletes has shown the visuomotor reaction time (VMRT) is strongly dependent on the speed of visual signal perception and processing in the brain's visual motion system. However, it remains unclear if this relation can be confirmed for other visuomotor demanding disciplines as well as different age groups. This study aimed to validate previous findings in international elite youth table tennis players to shed light on the generalizability of neural performance determinants across different visuomotor demanding sports and age groups. Methods: Thirty-seven young elite international table tennis players (18 male, 19 female, mean age: 13.5 years) from 23 nations participated in this study. Participants performed a visuomotor reaction task in response to visual motion stimuli presented at two different motion velocity conditions. Visuomotor performance was evaluated by measuring the electromyographic (EMG) onset as well as the VMRT. In addition, a 64-channel electroencephalography (EEG) system was used to investigate the stimulus and response-locked event-related potentials (ERPs) in the brain's visual motion sensitive area MT as well as the pre- and supplementary motor cortex indicating the speed of cortical visual and motor information processing, respectively. Correlation and multiple regression analyses identified the neural processes determining visuomotor performance. Results: The VMRT (232 vs. 258 ms, P < 0.001, d = -2.33) and EMG onset (181 vs. 206 ms, P < 0.001, d = -2.14) were accelerated in the fast motion velocity condition which was accompanied by an earlier stimulus-locked N2 (187 vs. 193 ms, P < 0.001, d = -0.80) and later response-locked N2-r (17 vs. -0.1 ms, P < 0.001, d = 1.04). The N2 and N2-r latencies were correlated with EMG onset and VMRT in both velocity conditions and explained between 80% and 90% of the variance in visuomotor reaction speed. Neural processes in BA6 did not differ between stimulus velocity conditions and did not contribute to the regression model. Conclusion: The results validate our previous findings and support the importance of neural visual processes for the visuomotor reaction speed across different visuomotor demanding sports and age groups. This suggests the visual system might be a promising target for specific visual diagnostics and training interventions.

The Effect of 4-Week Stroboscopic Training on Visual Function and Sport-Specific Visuomotor Performance in Top-Level Badminton Players.

PURPOSE: Stroboscopic training is suggested to improve visuomotor abilities in sports. However, previous research has primarily focused on untrained participants and only considered behavioral data. Because visuomotor performance is substantially determined by neural visual processes, this study aimed to examine the effects of stroboscopic training on visuomotor performance and neural visual function of athletes. METHODS: A total of 10 German top-level badminton players (intervention: n = 5 and control: n = 5) participated in this study. Over a 4-week training period, athletes performed badminton-specific visuomotor tasks either wearing shutter glasses (intervention) or under normal visual conditions (control). Prior to and after the training period, behavioral smash-defense tests and neurophysiologic investigations of the N2 motion onset visual evoked potential were used to identify modulations in the athletes' visuomotor performance and visual perception speed, respectively. RESULTS: Badminton training improved visuomotor performance in both groups; however, stroboscopic training resulted in superior posttraining performance compared with normal visual conditions (P = .007). Training-induced modulations in N2 latency did not reach significance, although a strong relationship was observed between changes in N2 latency and changes in visuomotor performance (r = -.55), indicating that higher performance gains following training were associated with a stronger reduction in N2 latency. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that stroboscopic training may be more effective than conventional visuomotor training for improving visuomotor abilities even in athletes performing at high skill levels. Furthermore, visuomotor performance gains could potentially be mediated by neural adaptations in the visual motion system. These findings should be confirmed for athletes from different disciplines.

The pre-stimulus oscillatory alpha phase affects neural correlates of early visual perception.

A growing number of studies suggest the phase of ongoing alpha oscillations in the brain influences visual perception. However, it remained largely unconsidered if this is associated with a phase dependence of neurophysiological processes especially in the visual cortex. Therefore, this study investigated the link between the pre-stimulus oscillatory alpha phase and neural correlates of early visual perception. In 64 subjects a 64-channel EEG system was used to examine the phase dependence of pattern-reversal visual evoked potentials (VEP) in a visual perception experiment. The pre-stimulus oscillatory phase over the primary visual cortex was determined for the individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF) as well as the frequency of maximal phase locking (PLFfmax). The phase dependence of VEP latency was determined using single-trial phase sorting. The results indicate a significantly shorter latency for the N75 and P100 components of the VEP between 40°-100° (p < 0.05) and 90°-120° (p < 0.05), respectively when trials were phase-sorted based on the iAPF. In contrast, the PLFfmax phase did not affect the N75 or P100 latency. The study indicates a link between the pre-stimulus alpha phase and neural correlates of early visual perception. These results extend previous behavioral findings to the neurophysiological level and support current models suggesting visual perception is modulated by ongoing alpha oscillations.

The athletes' visuomotor system - Cortical processes contributing to faster visuomotor reactions.

Many sports require athletes to rapidly transform visual information into a targeted motor response, a process referred to as visuomotor reaction. On the behavioural level, athletes have long been established to achieve faster simple visuomotor reaction times when compared to non-athletes. However, although the superior performance in athletes has been attributed to the central nervous system, the underlying neural mechanisms remained poorly studied. More recently, a growing number of neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies systematically addressed the functional and structural modulations in the athletes' visual and motor systems as well as their contribution to visuomotor performance. This article reviews current research on structural and functional characteristics of the athletes' cortical visuomotor system associated with simple visuomotor reactions, sports-specific visuomotor performance and visuomotor training. The primary objective is to shed light on the neural mechanisms potentially contributing to superior visuomotor reaction performance in athletes participating in visuomotor demanding disciplines. A more comprehensive understanding of performance-determining neural functions could provide great potential for diagnostics and training to improve athletic performance.

Visual but not motor processes predict simple visuomotor reaction time of badminton players.

The athlete's brain exhibits significant functional adaptations that facilitate visuomotor reaction performance. However, it is currently unclear if the same neurophysiological processes that differentiate athletes from non-athletes also determine performance within a homogeneous group of athletes. This information can provide valuable help for athletes and coaches aiming to optimize existing training regimes. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the neurophysiological correlates of visuomotor reaction performance in a group of skilled athletes. In 36 skilled badminton athletes, electroencephalography (EEG) was used to investigate pattern reversal and motion onset visual-evoked potentials (VEPs) as well as visuomotor reaction time (VMRT) during a simple reaction task. Stimulus-locked and response-locked event-related potentials (ERPs) in visual and motor regions as well as the onset of muscle activation (EMG onset) were determined. Correlation and multiple regression analyses identified the neurophysiological parameters predicting EMG onset and VMRT. For pattern reversal stimuli, the P100 latency and age best predicted EMG onset (r = 0.43; p = .003) and VMRT (r = 0.62; p = .001). In the motion onset experiment, EMG onset (r = 0.80; p < .001) and VMRT (r = 0.78; p < .001) were predicted by N2 latency and age. In both conditions, cortical potentials in motor regions were not correlated with EMG onset or VMRT. It is concluded that previously identified neurophysiological parameters differentiating athletes from non-athletes do not necessarily determine performance within a homogeneous group of athletes. Specifically, the speed of visual perception/processing predicts EMG onset and VMRT in skilled badminton players while motor-related processes, although differentiating athletes from non-athletes, are not associated simple with visuomotor reaction performance.