Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of models of maternity care for women from migrant and refugee backgrounds in high-income countries: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Different models of care may be appropriate for various groups of women during their perinatal period, depending on their risk level, location, and accessibility of healthcare practitioners and facilities. Evaluating these models' effectiveness and cost-effectiveness is critical to allocating resources and offering sustained care to women from refugee backgrounds. This systematic review aimed to synthesize evidence on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of maternity care models among women from migrant and refugee backgrounds living in high-income countries. METHODS: A comprehensive search of major databases for studies published in English between 2000 and 2023 was developed to identify literature using defined keywords and inclusion criteria. Two authors independently screened the search findings and the full texts of eligible studies. The quality of the included studies was appraised, and qualitative and quantitative results were synthesised narratively and presented in tabular form. The review was reported using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. RESULTS: Forty-seven research papers from six countries were included in the review. The review highlighted the positive impact of community and stakeholders' involvement in the implementation of models of maternity care for women from migrant and refugee backgrounds. The review summarised the models of care in terms of their effectiveness in improving perinatal health outcomes and minimising medical interventions, continuum of care in maternity services, enhancing health literacy, maternity service use and navigating the healthcare system, social support, and sense of belongingness, and addressing cultural and linguistic barriers. Notably, only one study conducted a partial economic evaluation to determine the cost-effectiveness of the model. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH: While the reviewed models demonstrated effectiveness in improving perinatal health outcomes, there was considerable variation in outcome measures and assessment tools across the models. Thus, reaching a consensus on prioritised perinatal outcomes and measurement tools is crucial. Researchers and policymakers should collaborate to enhance the quality and quantity of economic evaluations to support evidence-based decision-making. This includes thoroughly comparing costs and outcomes across various health models to determine the most efficient interventions. By emphasizing the importance of comprehensive economic evaluations, healthcare systems can better allocate resources, ultimately leading to more effective and efficient healthcare delivery.

Young People's Barriers and Facilitators of Engagement with Web-Based Mental Health Interventions for Anxiety and Depression: A Qualitative Study.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of anxiety and depressive symptoms in young people have increased in many countries around the world. Web-based mental health interventions (or W-MHIs) have the potential to reduce anxiety and depression symptoms for young people. Although W-MHIs have become more widely used by young people since the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, real-world engagement in these W-MHIs has remained low compared with engagement reported in research studies. Moreover, there are limited studies examining factors influencing engagement with W-MHIs in the post-COVID-19 pandemic years. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to explore barriers and facilitators of engagement with W-MHIs for anxiety and depression among young people. METHOD: Seventeen semi-structured interviews and one focus group with three participants were conducted online via Zoom between February and March 2023. Participants were young people aged 18-25 years who had self-reported experience of anxiety and/or depression in the past 6 months, lived in Australia, and considered using W-MHIs to manage their anxiety and/or depression symptoms. Inductive thematic analysis was performed to understand the key barriers and facilitators of young people's engagement with W-MHIs. RESULTS: Both individual- and intervention-related factors influenced young people's engagement with W-MHIs. Facilitators of engagement included personal trust and beliefs in W-MHIs, ability to contact a health professional, programme suitability (e.g., affordability, content aligning with user needs), programme usability (e.g., user interface), and accessibility of the online platform. Barriers included concerns about online security, lack of human interaction and immediate responses from health professionals (if any), and negative experience with mental health programmes. Participants expressed greater willingness to pay if they could contact health professionals during the programme. CONCLUSION: Better promotion strategies for mental health and W-MHI awareness are needed to increase the perceived importance and priority of mental health interventions among young people. Young people should be involved in the W-MHI co-design to enhance the programme suitability and usability for young people, fostering their engagement with W-MHIs.

Trends and disparities in perinatal health outcomes among women from refugee backgrounds in Victoria, Australia: A population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Women from refugee backgrounds generally experience poorer pregnancy-related outcomes compared to host populations. AIM: To examine the trend and disparities in adverse perinatal outcomes among women of refugee background using population-based data from 2003 to 2017. METHODS: A population-based cross-sectional study of 754,270 singleton births in Victoria compared mothers of refugee backgrounds with Australian-born mothers. Inferential statistics, including Pearson chi-square and binary logistic regression, were conducted. Multiple logistic regression was conducted to explore the relationship between adverse perinatal outcomes and the women's refugee status. FINDINGS: Women of refugee background had higher odds of adverse neonatal and maternal outcomes, including stillbirth, neonatal death, low APGAR score, small for gestational age, postpartum haemorrhage, abnormal labour, perineal tear, and maternal admission to intensive care compared to Australian-born women. However, they had lower odds of neonatal admission to intensive care, pre-eclampsia, and maternal postnatal depression. The trend analysis showed limited signs of gaps closing over time in adverse perinatal outcomes. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Refugee background was associated with unfavourable perinatal outcomes, highlighting the negative influence of refugee status on perinatal health. This evidences the need to address the unique healthcare requirements of this vulnerable population to enhance the well-being of mothers and newborns. Implementing targeted interventions and policies is crucial to meet the healthcare requirements of women of refugee backgrounds. Collaborative efforts between healthcare organisations, government agencies and non-governmental organisations are essential in establishing comprehensive support systems to assist refugee women throughout their perinatal journey.

Barriers to and facilitators of user engagement with web-based mental health interventions in young people: a systematic review.

Many young people (YP) are diagnosed with mental illnesses and require support. Web-based mental health interventions (W-MHIs) have been increasingly utilized by YP, healthcare providers, and parents due to reasons including convenience and anonymity. W-MHIs are effective in improving mental health in YP. However, real-world engagement with W-MHIs remains low. Therefore, understanding barriers/facilitators of user engagement with W-MHIs is necessary to promote W-MHIs and help users gain optimal benefits through higher engagement. This review aims to identify barriers/facilitators of user engagement with W-MHIs in YP aged 10-24 years. A systematic search of five databases for English language, peer-reviewed publications was conducted between January 2010 and February 2023. Studies examining factors influencing user engagement with W-MHIs, described as barriers or facilitators, were included. Study quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. A narrative synthesis was performed. Of 4088 articles identified, 69 studies were included. Barriers/facilitators were reported by young people (63 studies), providers (17 studies), and parents/caregivers (8 studies). YP perceived that usefulness and connectedness were the most common facilitators, whereas low-perceived need was the most reported barrier. Both providers and parents reported that perceived usefulness for YP was the most common facilitator, whereas concerns about program effectiveness and privacy were noted as barriers. This review found that program- and individual-related factors were important determinants of engagement with W-MHIs. This review provides guidance on the future design and development of new interventions, narrowing the gap between existing W-MHIs and unmet needs of users.

Barriers and Enablers of Service Access and Utilization for Children and Adolescents With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review.

OBJECTIVE: To update a systematic review of the literature on the barriers and enablers of service access and utilization for children and adolescents with a diagnosis, or symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), from the perspective of caregivers, clinicians, and teachers. METHODS: Five databases were searched for peer-reviewed literature published from May 2012 to March 2023. Two independent reviewers completed a two-stage screening process and quality assessment. RESULTS: Of 4,523 search results, 30 studies were included. Five main themes were generated: 1) Awareness of ADHD, 2) Stigma, 3) Parental choice and partnerships, 4) Education services as an integral component, 5) Referrals, waiting times, and logistics. More than half of the studies reported poor acknowledgement, expertise of ADHD, and stigma. CONCLUSION: Findings highlight the need for ongoing ADHD education for all involved and policy changes to service delivery systems to increase the availability of health providers with specialist ADHD expertise.

Economic costs associated with unhealthy weight control behaviors among Australian adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: This study explored the relationship between unhealthy weight control behaviors (UWCBs) and their associated economic costs among adolescents using the 2014-2018 Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC). METHODS: LSAC data in Wave 6 (n = 3538 adolescents aged 14-15 years), Wave 7 n = 3089 adolescents aged 16-17 years), and Wave 8 (n = 3037 adolescents aged 18-19 years) were derived from a representative sample of Australian adolescents. UWCBs were measured using the self-reported Branched Eating Disorder Test questionnaire. UWCBs were sub-classified into having fasting behaviors, using weight loss supplements or purging behaviors. Economic costs include healthcare and productivity costs to caregivers. Healthcare costs were measured using data from the Medicare and Pharmaceutical Benefits, which includes both medical and pharmaceutical costs. Productivity losses were measured using caregivers' lost leisure time due to UWCBs among adolescents. RESULTS: The mixed effect model identified statistically significant higher economic costs (mean difference = $453, 95% CIs $154, $752), higher health care costs (mean difference = $399, 95% CIs $102, $695), and higher productivity costs (mean difference = $59, 95% CIs $29, $90) for adolescents with UWCBs compared to their peers with no UWCBs. Subgroup analysis revealed that higher costs were associated with fasting and purging behaviors. DISCUSSION: UWCBs were associated with increased economic costs during adolescence. Our finding suggests there should be a policy focus on tackling UWCBs to reduce the economic burden on the healthcare system and society. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: The study contributes to existing knowledge by investigating the direct healthcare costs and productivity losses associated with unhealthy weight control behaviors in Australian adolescents (14-18 years old) using a dataset that follows Australian adolescents over time. We found that engaging in unhealthy weight control behaviors such as fasting, using weight loss supplements, and purging was linked to higher costs among adolescents, suggesting policies should focus on addressing these behaviors.

Economic Burden and Service Utilization of Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVES: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in children. This study aims to systematically synthesize the literature on service utilization and costs for children with ADHD. METHODS: The search included 9 databases for peer-reviewed primary studies in English from 2007 to 2023. Two independent reviewers conducted title/abstract and full-text screenings and quality assessment. Meta-analysis was conducted on direct medical costs. RESULTS: Thirty-two studies were included. Children with ADHD have used more pharmaceuticals, mental health, and special education services than children without ADHD (counterparts). Nevertheless, one study found that children with ADHD were twice as likely to have unmet health needs than their counterparts. Annual health system costs per patient were highly varied and higher in children with ADHD ($722-$11 555) than their counterparts ($179-$3646). From a societal perspective, children with ADHD were associated with higher costs ($162-$18 340) than their counterparts ($0-2540). The overall weighted mean direct medical cost was $5319 for children with ADHD compared with $1152 for their counterparts when all studies with different sample sizes were considered together, with the difference being $4167. Limited literature on productivity losses associated with ADHD reported them as a substantial cost. ADHD in children had a "large" effect on the increment of direct medical costs. CONCLUSIONS: ADHD was associated with increased service utilization and costs. However, unmet health needs or underuse among children with ADHD was also evident. Governments should endeavor to improve access to effective services for children with ADHD to mitigate the impact of ADHD.

The Impact of Childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) on Children's Health-Related Quality of Life: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between children's health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHOD: Databases were systematically searched for peer-reviewed literature published between 2010 and 2022. Two reviewers independently screened and assessed the quality of included studies. Meta-analysis was conducted for studies that used the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL). RESULTS: Twenty-three studies were included, with most rated as "good" quality. Meta-analysis found "very large" effect in both parent- (Hedges' g -1.67, 95% CI [-2.57, -0.78]) and child-reported (Hedges' g -1.28, 95% CI [-2.01, -0.56]) HRQoL for children with ADHD compared to children without ADHD. No difference between parent- and child-reported HRQoL in children with and without ADHD was found. However, parent-reported HRQoL was lower than child-reported HRQoL among children with ADHD. CONCLUSION: ADHD was associated with substantially poorer children's HRQoL. Among children with ADHD, parents rated their children's HRQoL lower than the children themselves.

New trematode species Lecithostaphylus halongi n. sp. (Zoogonidae, Microphalloidea) and Gymnotergestia strongyluri n. sp. (Fellodistomidae, Gymnophalloidea) from beloniform fishes in Vietnam.

In this study we described two new trematode species, Lecithostaphylus halongi n. sp. (Zoogonidae, Lecithostaphylinae) and Gymnotergestia strongyluri n. sp. (Fellodistomidae, Tergestiinae), on the basis of morphological and molecular data. Adult worms of these two species were collected from, respectively, Hemiramphus spp. (Hemiramphidae) and Strongylura strongylura (Belonidae) caught in the coastal waters of Vietnam. Adult worms of L. halongi n. sp. are morphologically close to Lecithostaphylus gibsoni Cribb, Bray & Barker, 1992 ex Abudefduf whitleyi from Heron Island and Lecithostaphylus depauperati Yamaguti, 1970 ex Hemiramphus depauperatus from Hawaii, but differ from these species in having a larger cirrus sac and a different arrangement of vitelline fields. They also differ from Lecithostaphylus brayi Cabañas-Granillo, Solórzano-García, Mendoza-Garfias & Pérez-Ponce de León, 2020 in the 28S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequence data at the interspecific level. Adult worms of G. strongyluri n. sp. ex S. strongylura are morphologically similar to Gymnotergestia chaetodipteri, the only previously known species of this genus, described from Chaetodipterus faber in Jamaica. The new species differs from G. chaetodipteri in body shape, testicular arrangement and the size of the pharynx and eggs. The 28S rDNA-based phylogenetic analysis indicates that G. strongyluri n. sp. is closely related to Tergestia spp., rendering Tergestia paraphyletic. Genetic divergence values between G. strongyluri n. sp. and Tergestia spp. are similar to those among species in the genera Tergestia, Steringophorus and Proctoeces. Our molecular results indicate that G. strongyluri n. sp. and Tergestia spp. may belong the same genus, but additional molecular data are needed for the final conclusion.

A Theory of Change for Community-Based Systems Interventions to Prevent Obesity.

INTRODUCTION: Applying systems science in public health trials is a recent innovation in childhood obesity prevention. This paper aims to use systems science conventions to propose a theory of change for community-based interventions aiming to build capacity and use exemplars from systems science for obesity prevention to describe how this approach works. METHODS: Participants were community-based researchers. A dynamic hypothesis was created in workshops conducted in 2020 and 2021 by identifying variables critical to building community capacity for systems thinking. These were used to develop stock and flow diagrams representing individual causal relationships, feedback loops, and the overall theory of change. RESULTS: The resultant model identified 9 stocks and 4 pairs of central balancing and reinforcing feedback loops. These represented building commitment through relationships, mutual learning, strengthening collaboration, and embedding capacity. The model is described using examples from 3 trials involving 25 communities across Victoria, Australia. CONCLUSIONS: This nonlinear and practice-based model illustrates the process of community-based obesity prevention. The model integrates >20 years of community-based intervention implementation experience, providing an overarching theory of how such interventions work to create change and prevent obesity.

Health-related quality of life of children with low language from early childhood to adolescence: results from an Australian longitudinal population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Low language abilities are known to be associated with significant adverse long-term outcomes. However, associations between low language and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) are unclear. We aimed to (a) examine the association between low language and HRQoL from 4 to 13 years and (b) classify the children's trajectories of HRQoL and language and examine the association between language and HRQoL trajectories. METHODS: Data were from an Australian community-based cohort of children. HRQoL was measured at ages 4-13 years using the parent-reported Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory 4.0. Language was assessed using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF)-Preschool 2nd edition at 4 years and the CELF-4th edition at 5, 7 and 11 years. Multivariable linear regression and mixed effect modelling were used to estimate cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between low language and HRQoL from 4 to 13 years. A joint group-based trajectory model was used to characterize associations between HRQoL and language trajectories over childhood. RESULTS: Children with low language had substantially lower HRQoL than children with typical language from 4 to 13 years. Higher language scores were associated with better HRQoL, particularly in social and school functioning. Three HRQoL trajectories were identified: stable-high (51% of children), reduced with slow decline (40%) and low with rapid decline (9%). Children with low language were less likely to follow a stable-high HRQoL trajectory (40%) while 26% and 34% followed the reduced with slow decline and low with rapid decline trajectories, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Children with low language experienced reduced HRQoL from 4 to 13 years. More than half had declining trajectories in HRQoL highlighting the need to monitor these children over time. Interventions should not only aim to improve children's language ability but also address the wider functional impacts of low language.

Health-Related Quality of Life in Children With Low Language or Congenital Hearing Loss, as Measured by the PedsQL and Health Utility Index Mark 3.

OBJECTIVES: To examine health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in young children with low language or congenital hearing loss and to explore the value of assessing HRQoL by concurrently administering 2 HRQoL instruments in populations of children. METHODS: Data were from 2 Australian community-based studies: Language for Learning (children with typical and low language at age 4 years, n = 1012) and the Statewide Comparison of Outcomes study (children with hearing loss, n = 108). HRQoL was measured using the parent-reported Health Utilities Index Mark 3 (HUI3) and the Pediatrics Quality of Life Inventory 4.0 (PedsQL) generic core scale. Agreement between the HRQoL instruments was assessed using intraclass correlation and Bland-Altman plots. RESULTS: Children with low language and with hearing loss had lower HRQoL than children with normal language; the worst HRQoL was experienced by children with both. The lower HRQoL was mainly due to impaired school functioning (PedsQL) and speech and cognition (HUI3). Children with hearing loss also had impaired physical and social functioning (PedsQL), vision, hearing, dexterity, and ambulation (HUI3). Correlations between instruments were poor to moderate, with low agreement. CONCLUSIONS: Children with low language and congenital hearing loss might benefit from interventions targeting overall health and well-being, not just their impairments. The HUI3 and PedsQL each seemed to provide unique information and thus may supplement each other in assessing HRQoL of young children, including those with low language or congenital hearing loss.

Health-related quality of life, service utilization and costs of low language: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Low language (LL) is a common childhood condition affecting 7-17% of children. It is associated with life-long adverse outcomes and can affect various aspects of a child's life. However, the literature on its impact on health-related quality of life (HRQoL), service use and costs are limited. To date, there has been no systematic review of the overall economic burden of LL. A systematic review regarding the economic burden of LL is important for clinical, educational, policy decision-making and theoretical aspects. We adopted the term 'low language' to refer to children whose language performance falls below well-recognized cut-points regardless of known or unknown aetiology. AIMS: To review the literature systematically on how LL is associated with HRQoL, service utilization and costs. METHODS & PROCEDURES: A systematic search was conducted across various databases, including MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, up to July 2017. Data on study design, population and outcomes were extracted and screened by two pairs of reviewers with the revision of other experts in the panel on any discrepancies. The Effective Public Health Practice Project tool was used to assess the risk of bias of the included studies. The findings of the included studies were summarized in a narrative synthesis. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: We identified 22 relevant articles, of which 12 reported HRQoL and 11 reported service utilization and costs associated with LL. Preference-based instruments, which include the relative importance attached to different aspects of HRQoL, were less employed in the literature. Most studies found poorer HRQoL in children with LL compared with their peers. About half the families having children with LL did not actively seek professional help, and many families felt they did not receive sufficient services when needed. Healthcare costs associated with LL were substantial. Non-healthcare costs were largely unexplored. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: LL was associated with reduced children's HRQoL, higher service use and costs. Under-servicing was evident in children with LL. LL also imposed large costs on the healthcare system. Further research is required to examine (1) the overall HRQoL of children with LL, in particular studies using and testing the performance of preference-based instruments; and (2) the service use and costs specific to LL, especially non-healthcare costs.

Correction to: Morphometric and molecular analyses of Carassotrema koreanum park 1938 and Elonginurus mugilus Lu 1995 (Digenea: Haploporidae) Srivastava, 1937 from the Russian Far East and Vietnam.

The original version of this article contained mistake in the accession number found in Table 1. Correct accession numbers are presented here.

Morphometric and molecular analyses of Carassotrema koreanum Park 1938 and Elonginurus mugilus Lu 1995 (Digenea: Haploporidae) Srivastava, 1937 from the Russian Far East and Vietnam.

Adult worms that belong to Carassotrema Park 1938 and Elonginurus Lu, 1955 were found in the intestine of Carassius gibelio Bloch, 1782 from the southern Russian Far East and Mugil cephalus Linnaeus, 1758 from northern Vietnam, respectively. Morphometric parameters, geographic location and host species composition of these worms correspond to Carassotrema koreanum Park 1938, which is a known parasite of cyprinid fish in Korea, Japan and China, and Elonginurus mugilus Lu, 1955, first described from M. cephalus in China. The validity of Carassotrema ginezinskajae Kulakova, Ha Ky, 1976, a synonym of C. koreanum, first described from Spinibarbichthys denticulatus Oshima, 1926 in Vietnam, supported the morphometric data. Phylogenetic analysis based on combined ITS2 ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and 28S rRNA indicated that C. koreanum and E. mugilus belong to the subfamily Waretrematinae and are closely related to the genera Skrjabinolecithum and Parasaccocoelium, respectively. Species similarity, revealed through molecular analysis, agreed with the generic diagnoses for Parasaccocoelium and Elonginurus, as well as for Carassotrema and Skrjabinolecithum.

Morphological and molecular data for species of Lecithaster Lühe, 1901 and Hysterolecithoides Yamaguti, 1934 (Digenea: Lecithasteridae) from fish of East Asia and phylogenetic relationships within the Hemiuroidea Looss, 1899.

Four representatives of the genus Lecithaster and one representative of the genus Hysterolecithoides were found during investigation of the trematode fauna of fish species in Vietnamese, Japanese and eastern coastal waters of the Russian Far East. Based on morphometric data, adult trematodes from Vietnamese Strongylura strongylura and Russian Acanthogobius flavimanus were identified as Lecithaster confusus, trematodes from Vietnamese Hemirhamphus marginatus as L. sayori and from osmerid fishes as L. salmonis. Further, a single specimen of Lecithaster sp. and representatives of Hysterolecithoides epinepheli were found in Vietnamese Siganus fuscescens. Morphological and molecular data, including 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) V4 fragment, 28S rDNA D1-D3 fragment, internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and a mitochondrial COI gene fragment were analysed for Lecithaster spp. The results revealed that L. sayori and L. salmonis are not synonyms of L. stellatus and L. gibbosus, respectively, but that Hysterolecithoides frontilatus and H. guangdongensis are junior synonyms of H. epinepheli. The 28S-rDNA-based phylogenetic tree of Hemiuroidea showed a distinct position for the genus Lecithaster with internal differentiation into three subclades, including L. confusus, L. sayori and Lecithaster sp. within the first subclade, L. mugilis and L. sudzuhensis within the second subclade and L. salmonis and L. gibbosus within the third subclade. Bayesian phylogenetic reconstructions of Hemiuroidea showed four clades for members of Hemiuridae and Lecithasteridae. The first clade consisted of Hemiuridae representatives and the second clade represented the genus Lecithaster. The third clade included genera Aponurus and Lecithophyllum (Lecithasteridae) and the fourth clade combined members of lecithasterid Quadrifoliovariinae and Hysterolecithinae and hemiurid Opisthadeninae and Bunocotylidae with high statistical support.

Classroom Promotion of Oral Language (CPOL): protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial of a school-based intervention to improve children's literacy outcomes at grade 3, oral language and mental health.

INTRODUCTION: Oral language and literacy competence are major influences on children's developmental pathways and life success. Children who do not develop the necessary language and literacy skills in the early years of school then go on to face long-term difficulties. Improving teacher effectiveness may be a critical step in lifting oral language and literacy outcomes. The Classroom Promotion of Oral Language trial aims to determine whether a specifically designed teacher professional learning programme focusing on promoting oral language can lead to improved teacher knowledge and practice, and advance outcomes in oral language and literacy for early years school children, compared with usual practice. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This is a two-arm cluster multisite randomised controlled trial conducted within Catholic and Government primary schools across Victoria, Australia. The intervention comprises 4 days of face-to-face professional learning for teachers and ongoing implementation support via a specific worker. The primary outcome is reading ability of the students at grade 3, and the secondary outcomes are teacher knowledge and practice, student mental health, reading comprehension and language ability at grade 1; and literacy, writing and numeracy at grade 3. Economic evaluation will compare the incremental costs of the intervention to the measured primary and secondary outcomes. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This trial was approved by the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee #CF13/2634-2013001403 and later transferred to the University of Melbourne #1545540. The investigators (including Government and Catholic partners) will communicate trial results to stakeholders, collaborators and participating schools and teachers via appropriate presentations and publications. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN77681972; Pre-results.

Service utilisation and costs of language impairment in children: The early language in Victoria Australian population-based study.

PURPOSE: To examine (1) the patterns of service use and costs associated with language impairment in a community cohort of children from ages 4-9 years and (2) the relationship between language impairment and health service utilisation. METHOD: Participants were children and caregivers of six local government areas in Melbourne participating in the community-based Early Language in Victoria Study (ELVS). Health service use was reported by parents. Costs were valued in Australian dollars in 2014, from the government and family perspectives. Depending on age, the Australian adapted Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals - Pre-school, 2nd Edition (CELF-P2) or the CELF, 4th Edition (CELF4) was used to assess expressive and receptive language. RESULT: At 5, 7 and 9 years respectively 21%, 11% and 8% of families reported using services for speech and/or language concerns. The annual costs associated with using services averaged A$612 (A$255 to government, A$357 to family) at 5 years and A$992 (A$317 to government, A$675 to family) at 7 years. Children with persistent language impairment had significantly higher service costs than those with typical language. CONCLUSION: Language impairment in 4-9-year-old children is associated with higher use of services and costs to both families and government compared to typical language.

Economic evaluation of price discounts and skill-building strategies on purchase and consumption of healthy food and beverages: The SHELf randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: Pricing strategies are a promising approach for promoting healthier dietary choices. However, robust evidence of the cost-effectiveness of pricing manipulations on dietary behaviour is limited. We aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of a 20% price reduction on fruits and vegetables and a combined skills-based behaviour change and price reduction intervention. DESIGN AND METHODS: Cost-effectiveness analysis from a societal perspective was undertaken for the randomized controlled trial Supermarket Healthy Eating for Life (SHELf). Female shoppers in Melbourne, Australia were randomized to: (1) skill-building (n = 160); (2) price reductions (n = 161); (3) combined skill-building and price reduction (n = 161); or (4) control group (n = 161). The intervention was implemented for three months followed by a six month follow-up. Costs were measured in 2012 Australian dollars. Fruit and vegetable purchasing and consumption were measured in grams/week. RESULTS: At three months, compared to control participants, price reduction participants increased vegetable purchases by 233 g/week (95% CI 4 to 462, p = 0.046) and fruit purchases by 364 g/week (95% CI 95 to 633, p = 0.008). Participants in the combined group purchased 280 g/week more fruits (95% CI 27 to 533, p = 0.03) than participants in the control group. Increases were not maintained six-month post intervention. No effect was noticed in the skill-building group. Compared to the control group, the price reduction intervention cost an additional A$2.3 per increased serving of vegetables purchased per week or an additional A$3 per increased serving of fruit purchased per week. The combined intervention cost an additional A$12 per increased serving of fruit purchased per week compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: A 20% discount on fruits and vegetables was effective in promoting overall fruit and vegetable purchases during the period the discount was active and may be cost-effective. The price discount program gave better value for money than the combined price reduction and skill-building intervention. The SHELf trial is registered with Current Controlled Trials Registration ISRCTN39432901.