Effects of Cognitive Training and Exergaming in Pediatric Cancer Survivors-A Randomized Clinical Trial.

PURPOSE: Although most pediatric cancer patients survive, those who undergo anticancer treatments like chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy are at a high risk for late effects, such as cognitive deficits. To counteract these deficits, feasible and effective interventions are needed. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of working memory training, exergaming, and a wait-list control condition on cognitive functions in pediatric cancer survivors. METHODS: In a parallel-group randomized trial, 69 pediatric cancer survivors aged 7-16 yr (mean = 11.35, SD = 3.53) were randomly assigned to 8-wk working memory training, exergaming, or a wait-list control group. Each training course consisted of three 45-min training sessions per week. The primary outcome comprised the core executive functions (visual working memory, inhibition, switching), and the secondary outcomes included other cognitive domains (intelligence, planning, memory, attention, processing speed), motor abilities, and parent rating on their children's executive functions. Assessments were conducted both before and immediately after the interventions, and at 3-month follow-up. RESULTS: Linear mixed models revealed that participants in the working memory training group showed a linear improvement in visual working memory after training and at follow-up compared with the control group. No other intervention effects of either type of training could be detected. CONCLUSION: This study presents evidence that working memory training improves visual working memory in pediatric cancer survivors. Results show that near-transfer, but no far-transfer effects can be expected from working memory training. Multiple-component interventions tailored to fit the individual's cognitive profile are needed to best support cognitive development after cancer and its treatment.

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Striking Postconcussion Symptoms Due to Inadequate Management.

Pediatric mild traumatic brain injury is a frequent cause for emergency consultations. Very often, management decisions focus only on acute neurological problems, without considering possible long-term impairment. Our case describes a 14-year-old girl who developed a pronounced and prolonged postconcussive syndrome and subsequent posttraumatic stress symptoms after (mild) traumatic brain injury. Early discharge without adequate instructions about the appropriate time to return to school and daily life activities promoted these striking problems. Only the delayed interventions including reduction of school workload and initiation of physiotherapy led to an improvement of symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Traumatologists, pediatricians, and general practitioners should call families' and teachers' attention to the risk of potential postconcussive syndrome and advise them on appropriate coping strategies. Thorough clinical examination should rule out potentially treatable physical impairments. Prescription of physical and cognitive rest at an early stage is mandatory and should be part of concussion management already at emergency department. Pediatricians or general practitioners should follow up patients and support their gradually working back into full activity.

The Brainfit study: efficacy of cognitive training and exergaming in pediatric cancer survivors - a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Cancer survival comes at a price: pediatric cancer survivors bear a high risk for a wide range of cognitive difficulties. Therefore, interventions targeting these difficulties are required. The aim of the present clinical trial is to extend empirical evidence about efficacy of cognitive and physical training in pediatric cancer survivors. It is hypothesized that early cognitive and physical interventions affect the remediation of pediatric cancer survivors in terms of improved executive functions (primary outcome). Additional positive effects of cognitive and physical intervention to other areas such as memory and attention are expected (secondary outcome). Changes in cognitive performance are expected to be associated with structural and functional changes in the brain. METHODS: Overall, 150 pediatric cancer survivors and 50 matched controls will be included in this trial. The cancer survivors will be randomly assigned to either a computerized cognitive training, a physical training (exergaming) or a waiting control group. They will be assessed with neuropsychological tests, tests of sport motor performance and physical fitness before and after 8 weeks of training and again at a 3-months follow-up. Moreover, neuroimaging will be performed at each of the three time points to investigate the training impact on brain structure and function. DISCUSSION: With increasing cancer survival rates, evidence-based interventions are of particular importance. New insights into training-related plasticity in the developing brain will further help to develop tailored rehabilitation programs for pediatric cancer survivors. TRIAL REGISTRATION: KEK BE 196/15; KEK ZH 2015-0397; ICTRP NCT02749877 ; date of registration: 30.11.2016; date of first participant enrolment: .18.01.2017.

Acute Cognitively Engaging Exergame-Based Physical Activity Enhances Executive Functions in Adolescents.

The study aimed to elucidate the influence of cognitive engagement comprised in an acute bout of exergame-based physical activity on executive functions (inhibition, cognitive flexibility) in adolescents. Therefore, the level of cognitive engagement and the intensity of physical activity were systematically varied across three experimental conditions. Sixty-five healthy male adolescents (13-16 years) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) physical activity with high levels of cognitive engagement during active video gaming, (b) physical activity with low levels of cognitive engagement during active video gaming, (c) sedentary with low levels of cognitive engagement during passive video watching. Manipulation checks, including subjective and objective operationalizations of cognitive engagement, were applied. Executive functions were assessed before and after each condition using the D-KEFS design fluency test. Results showed that cognitive engagement, operationalized by subjects' ratings and heart rate variability, differed between conditions. The physical activity condition with a high level of cognitive engagement resulted in significantly better performance in cognitive flexibility compared to conditions with low levels of cognitive engagement. Regarding benefits for executive functions in male adolescents, the results indicate that acute physical activity with high cognitive engagement could be more efficient than physical activity of the same intensity with low cognitive engagement. Even though further evidence is needed, these results extend previous research and suggest a methodological approach for measuring cognitive engagement.

Acute S100B in serum is associated with cognitive symptoms and memory performance 4 months after paediatric mild traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: This study explored whether acute serum marker S100B is related with post-concussive symptoms (PCS) and neuropsychological performance 4 months after paediatric mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This prospective short-term longitudinal study investigated children (aged 6-16 years) with mTBI (n = 36, 16 males) and children with orthopaedic injuries (OI, n = 27, 18 males) as a control group. S100B in serum was measured during the acute phase and was correlated with parent-rated PCS and neuropsychological performance 4 months after the injury. MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The results revealed no between-group difference regarding acute S100B serum concentration. In children after mTBI, group-specific significant Spearman correlations were found between S100B and post-acute cognitive PCS (r = 0.54, p = 0.001) as well as S100B and verbal memory performance (r = -0.47, p = 0.006). In children after OI, there were insignificant positive relations between S100B and post-acute somatic PCS. In addition, insignificant positive correlations were found between neuropsychological outcome and S100B in children after OI. CONCLUSIONS: S100B was not specific for mild brain injuries and may also be elevated after OI. The group-specific association between S100B and ongoing cognitive PCS in children after mTBI should motivate to examine further the role of S100B as a diagnostic biomarker in paediatric mTBI.

Cognitive dysfunction in children with brain tumors at diagnosis.

BACKGROUND: Survivors of brain tumors have a high risk for a wide range of cognitive problems. These dysfunctions are caused by the lesion itself and its surgical removal, as well as subsequent treatments (chemo- and/or radiation therapy). Multiple recent studies have indicated that children with brain tumors (BT) might already exhibit cognitive problems at diagnosis, i.e., before the start of any medical treatment. The aim of the present study was to investigate the baseline neuropsychological profile in children with BT compared to children with an oncological diagnosis not involving the central nervous system (CNS). METHODS: Twenty children with BT and 27 children with an oncological disease without involvement of the CNS (age range: 6.1-16.9 years) were evaluated with an extensive battery of neuropsychological tests tailored to the patient's age. Furthermore, the child and his/her parent(s) completed self-report questionnaires about emotional functioning and quality of life. In both groups, tests were administered before any therapeutic intervention such as surgery, chemotherapy, or irradiation. Groups were comparable with regard to age, gender, and socioeconomic status. RESULTS: Compared to the control group, patients with BTs performed significantly worse in tests of working memory, verbal memory, and attention (effect sizes between 0.28 and 0.47). In contrast, the areas of perceptual reasoning, processing speed, and verbal comprehension were preserved at the time of measurement. CONCLUSION: Our results highlight the need for cognitive interventions early in the treatment process in order to minimize or prevent academic difficulties as patients return to school.

Post-concussive symptoms and neuropsychological performance in the post-acute period following pediatric mild traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: There is evidence that children after mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI) suffer ongoing post-concussive symptoms (PCS). However, results concerning neuropsychological outcome after mTBI are controversial. Thus, our aim was to examine group differences regarding neuropsychological outcome and PCS. Additionally, we explored the influence of current and pre-injury everyday attention problems on neuropsychological outcome in children after mTBI. METHOD: In a prospective short-term longitudinal study, 40 children (aged 6-16 years) after mTBI and 38 children after orthopedic injury (OI) underwent neuropsychological, socio-behavioral and PCS assessments in the acute stage and at 1 week, at 4 weeks, and 4 months after the injury. RESULTS: Parents of children after mTBI observed significantly more PCS compared to parents of children after OI, especially in the acute stage. Our results revealed no neuropsychological or socio-behavioral differences over time between both groups. However, in children after mTBI, we found negative correlations between elevated levels of everyday attention problems and reduced neuropsychological performance. Furthermore, there was a negative influence of pre-injury everyday attention problems on neuropsychological performance in children after mTBI. CONCLUSION: In accordance with earlier studies, parents of children after mTBI initially observed significantly more PCS compared to parents of children after OI. There were no neuropsychological or socio-behavioral group differences between children after mTBI and OI in the post-acute period. However, our exploratory findings concerning the influence of everyday attention problems on neuropsychological outcome indicate that current and pre-injury everyday attention problems were negatively associated with neuropsychological performance in children after mTBI.

Factors affecting cognitive outcome in early pediatric stroke.

OBJECTIVE: We examined cognitive performance in children after stroke to study the influence of age at stroke, seizures, lesion characteristics, neurologic impairment (NI), and functional outcome on cognitive outcome. METHODS: This was a prospectively designed study conducted in 99 children who sustained an arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) between the age of 1 month and 16 years. All children underwent cognitive and neurologic follow-up examination sessions 2 years after the insult. Cognitive development was assessed with age-appropriate instruments. RESULTS: Although mean cognitive performance was in the lower normative range, we found poorer results in subtests measuring visuoconstructive skills, short-term memory, and processing speed. Risk factors for negative cognitive outcome were young age at stroke, seizures, combined lesion location (cortical and subcortical), as well as marked NI. CONCLUSIONS: We recommend that all children with a history of AIS undergo regularly scheduled neuropsychological assessment to ensure implementation of appropriate interventions and environmental adjustments as early as possible.

Reduced gamma-band coherence to distorted feedback during speech when what you say is not what you hear.

BACKGROUND: Communication between the frontal lobes, where speech is generated, and the temporal lobes, where it is perceived, may occur through the action of an efference copy/corollary discharge mechanism that prepares the temporal lobes for the expected sound. We suggest that coherence of EEG in gamma-band between frontal and temporal lobes may reflect the successful action of such a mechanism. We tested the hypothesis that there would be a disruption of gamma-band coherence when the expected auditory consequence of speech does not match the auditory experience. METHOD: EEG was recorded from 21 healthy adult subjects as they uttered the sound [a:] (Talking condition) and as they heard these recorded sounds played back (Listening condition). As they spoke, subjects heard real-time feedback of the sounds that were: (1) pitch-shifted down one semi-tone, (2) pitch-shifted down one-half of a semi-tone, or (3) not pitch-shifted (veridical), each in separate runs. Event-related gamma coherence between frontal and temporal sites was calculated relative to the onset of the sound, as it was being spoken during Talking, and as it was being played back during Listening. RESULTS: Frontal-temporal gamma-band coherence spanning 33-43 Hz was greater during Talking than Listening and greater when speech was veridical than when it was distorted a whole semi-tone. CONCLUSIONS: Gamma-band fronto-temporal synchrony may reflect a "binding of expectation with experience." Disruption of this synchrony may provide feedback to the frontal lobes, particularly regions subserving vocalization, to implement sensorimotor adaptations to either adjust motor programs for speech production in the short run, or to reorganize expectations in the long run.

Selective attention in schizophrenia: sparing and loss of executive control.

OBJECTIVE: Auditory selective attention involves top-down modulation of sensory processing to selectively filter relevant from irrelevant information. Patients with schizophrenia have deficits in auditory selective attention, but whether these attention deficits are evident at the earliest stages of auditory processing or emerge later in the processing stream is unknown. METHOD: Event-related potentials were used to assess the integrity and time course of auditory attention in schizophrenia during a cross-modal selective attention task. A random sequence of equiprobable loud and soft speech sounds and bright and dim checkerboard patterns occurred every 800 to 1200 msec. A button press was required in response to soft speech sounds in the auditory attention task and to dim checkerboards in the visual attention task. Event-related potentials were recorded from 15 patients with DSM-IV schizophrenia and 16 age- and gender-matched healthy comparison subjects. RESULTS: As early as 50 msec, both patients and comparison subjects showed evidence of cross-modal selective attention. These attention effects were sustained until 300 msec in comparison subjects but were no longer evident in patients by 100 msec. CONCLUSIONS: Schizophrenia patients implemented an early attentional filter but failed to sustain selective attention later in the processing stream. This suggests that initially intact executive control of auditory attention cannot be sustained in schizophrenia, perhaps implicating dysfunction in frontotemporal pathways.