Abnormal respiration under hyperoxia in TASK-1/3 potassium channel double knockout mice.

Despite intensive research, the exact function of TASK potassium channels in central and peripheral chemoreception is still under debate. In this study, we investigated the respiration of unrestrained TASK-3 (TASK-3-/-) and TASK-1/TASK-3 double knockout (TASK-1/3-/-) adult male mice in vivo using a plethysmographic device. Ventilation parameters of TASK-3-/- mice were normal under control condition (21% O2) and upon hypoxia and hypercapnia they displayed the physiological increase of ventilation. TASK-1/3-/- mice showed increased ventilation under control conditions. This increase of ventilation was caused by increased tidal volumes (VT), a phenomenon similarly observed in TASK-1-/- mice. Under acute hypoxia, TASK-1/3-/- mice displayed the physiological increase of the minute volume. Interestingly, this increase was not related to an increase of the respiratory frequency (fR), as observed in wild-type mice, but was caused by a strong increase of VT. This particular respiratory phenotype is reminiscent of the respiratory phenotype of carotid body-denervated rodents in the compensated state. Acute hypercapnia (5% CO2) stimulated ventilation in TASK-1/3-/- and wild-type mice to a similar extent; however, at higher CO2 concentrations (>5% CO2) the stimulation of ventilation was more pronounced in TASK-1/3-/- mice. At hyperoxia (100% O2), TASK-1-/-, TASK-3-/- and wild-type mice showed the physiological small decrease of ventilation. In sharp contrast, TASK-1/3-/- mice exhibited an abnormal increase of ventilation under hyperoxia. In summary, these measurements showed a grossly normal respiration of TASK-3-/- mice and a respiratory phenotype of TASK-1/3-/- mice that was characterized by a markedly enhanced tidal volume, similar to the one observed in TASK-1-/- mice. The abnormal hyperoxia response, exclusively found in TASK-1/3-/- double mutant mice, indicates that both TASK-1 and TASK-3 are essential for the hyperoxia-induced hypoventilation. The peculiar respiratory phenotype of TASK-1/3 knockout mice is reminiscent of the respiration of animals with long-term carotid body dysfunction. Taken together, TASK-1 and TASK-3 appear to serve specific and distinct roles in the complex processes underlying chemoreception and respiratory control.

Sex-dependent differences in the in vivo respiratory phenotype of the TASK-1 potassium channel knockout mouse.

TASK-1 potassium channels have been implicated in central and peripheral chemoreception; however, the precise contribution of TASK-1 for the control of respiration is still under debate. Here, we investigated the respiration of unrestrained adult and neonatal TASK-1 knockout mice (TASK-1-/-) using a plethysmographic device. Respiration in adult female TASK-1-/- mice under control (21% O2), hypoxia and hypercapnia was unaffected. Under acute hypoxia male TASK-1-/- mice exhibited a reduced increase of the respiratory frequency (fR) compared to wildtypes. However, the tidal volume (VT) of male TASK-1-/- mice was strongly enhanced. The volatile anesthetic isoflurane induced in male TASK-1-/- and male wild type mice (TASK-1+/+) a similar respiratory depression. Neonatal TASK-1-/- mice demonstrated a 30-40% decrease of the minute volume, caused by a reduction of the fR under control condition (21% O2). Under hypoxia, neonatal TASK-1-/- mice more frequently stopped breathing (apnea>3s) suggesting an increased hypoxia-sensitivity. As reported before, this increased hypoxia sensitivity had no influence on the survival rate of neonatal TASK-1-/- mice. In adult and neonatal mice, TASK-1 gene deletion induced a significant prolongation of the relaxation time (RT), which is a parameter for expiration kinetics. Additionally, screening for mutations in the human TASK-1 gene in 155 cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) was inconclusive. In conclusion, these data are suggestive for an increased hypoxia-sensitivity of neonatal TASK-1-/- mice, however, without causing an increase in neonatal lethality. In adult female TASK-1-/- mice respiration was unaffected, whereas adult male TASK-1-/- mice showed a modified breathing pattern. These results are suggestive for sex-specific mechanisms for compensating the inactivation of TASK-1 in mice.

The in vivo respiratory phenotype of the adenosine A1 receptor knockout mouse.

The nucleoside adenosine has been implicated in the regulation of respiration, especially during hypoxia in the newborn. In this study the role of adenosine A1 receptors for the control of respiration was investigated in vivo. To this end, respiration of unrestrained adult and neonatal adenosine A1 receptor knockout mice (A1R(-/-)) was measured in a plethysmographic device. Under control conditions (21% O2) and mild hypoxia (12-15% O2) no difference of respiratory parameters was observed between adult wildtype (A1R(+/+)) and A1R(-/-) mice. Under more severe hypoxia (6-10% O2) A1R(+/+) mice showed, after a transient increase of respiration, a decrease of respiration frequency (fR) and tidal volume (VT) leading to a decrease of minute volume (MV). This depression of respiration during severe hypoxia was absent in A1R(-/-) mice which displayed a stimulated respiration as indicated by the enhancement of MV by some 50-60%. During hypercapnia-hyperoxia (3-10% CO2/97-90 % O2), no obvious differences in respiration of A1R(-/-) and A1R(+/+) was observed. In neonatal mice, the respiratory response to hypoxia was surprisingly similar in both genotypes. However, neonatal A1R(-/-) mice appeared to have more frequently periods of apnea during hypoxia and in the post-hypoxic control period. In conclusion, these data indicate that the adenosine A1 receptor is an important molecular component mediating hypoxic depression in adult mice and it appears to stabilize respiration of neonatal mice.

The calcium-activated chloride channel Anoctamin 1 contributes to the regulation of renal function.

The role of calcium-activated chloride channels for renal function is unknown. By immunohistochemistry we demonstrate dominant expression of the recently identified calcium-activated chloride channels, Anoctamin 1 (Ano1, TMEM16A) in human and mouse proximal tubular epithelial (PTE) cells, with some expression in podocytes and other tubular segments. Ano1-null mice had proteinuria and numerous large reabsorption vesicles in PTE cells. Selective knockout of Ano1 in podocytes (Ano1-/-/Nphs2-Cre) did not impair renal function, whereas tubular knockout in Ano1-/-/Ksp-Cre mice increased urine protein excretion and decreased urine electrolyte concentrations. Purinergic stimulation activated calcium-dependent chloride currents in isolated proximal tubule epithelial cells from wild-type but not from Ano1-/-/Ksp-Cre mice. Ano1 currents were activated by acidic pH, suggesting parallel stimulation of Ano1 chloride secretion with activation of the proton-ATPase. Lack of calcium-dependent chloride secretion in cells from Ano1-/-/Ksp-Cre mice was paralleled by attenuated proton secretion and reduced endosomal acidification, which compromised proximal tubular albumin uptake. Tubular knockout of Ano1 enhanced serum renin and aldosterone concentrations, probably leading to enhanced compensatory distal tubular reabsorption, thus maintaining normal blood pressure levels. Thus, Ano1 has a role in proximal tubular proton secretion and protein reabsorption. The results correspond to regulation of the proton-ATPase by the Ano1-homolog Ist2 in yeast.

The TFIIH subunit p89 (XPB) localizes to the centrosome during mitosis.

BACKGROUND: The general transcription factor II H (TFIIH), comprised of a core complex and an associated CAK-complex, functions in transcription, DNA repair and cell cycle control. Mutations of the two largest subunits, p89 (XPB) and p80 (XPD), cause the hereditary cancer-prone syndrome xeroderma pigmentosum. METHODS: The TFIIH subunit p89 was monitored during interphase and cell division by immunofluorescence staining, GFP-fusion constructs including deletions, live cell imaging and immuno-precipitations. RESULTS: Here we demonstrate that during cell division, from prophase until telophase, the TFIIH core subunit p89, but not other subunits of TFIIH, associates with the centrosomes and the adjacent parts of the mitotic spindle. With overall constant levels throughout mitosis, p89 re-localizes to the newly formed nuclei by the end of mitosis. Furthermore, p89 interacts with the centrosomal protein gamma-tubulin. Truncations of p89 result in an abnormal subcellular distribution during interphase and abolished centrosomal association during mitosis. CONCLUSIONS: Our observations suggest a so far unappreciated role for p89 in cell cycle regulation, and may be the structural basis for a long known, but hitherto unexplained interaction between p89 and tubulin.

Task2 potassium channels set central respiratory CO2 and O2 sensitivity.

Task2 K(+) channel expression in the central nervous system is surprisingly restricted to a few brainstem nuclei, including the retrotrapezoid (RTN) region. All Task2-positive RTN neurons were lost in mice bearing a Phox2b mutation that causes the human congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. In plethysmography, Task2(-/-) mice showed disturbed chemosensory function with hypersensitivity to low CO(2) concentrations, leading to hyperventilation. Task2 probably is needed to stabilize the membrane potential of chemoreceptive cells. In addition, Task2(-/-) mice lost the long-term hypoxia-induced respiratory decrease whereas the acute carotid-body-mediated increase was maintained. The lack of anoxia-induced respiratory depression in the isolated brainstem-spinal cord preparation suggested a central origin of the phenotype. Task2 activation by reactive oxygen species generated during hypoxia could silence RTN neurons, thus contributing to respiratory depression. These data identify Task2 as a determinant of central O(2) chemoreception and demonstrate that this phenomenon is due to the activity of a small number of neurons located at the ventral medullary surface.

Epilepsy, ataxia, sensorineural deafness, tubulopathy, and KCNJ10 mutations.

BACKGROUND: Five children from two consanguineous families presented with epilepsy beginning in infancy and severe ataxia, moderate sensorineural deafness, and a renal salt-losing tubulopathy with normotensive hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis. We investigated the genetic basis of this autosomal recessive disease, which we call the EAST syndrome (the presence of epilepsy, ataxia, sensorineural deafness, and tubulopathy). METHODS: Whole-genome linkage analysis was performed in the four affected children in one of the families. Newly identified mutations in a potassium-channel gene were evaluated with the use of a heterologous expression system. Protein expression and function were further investigated in genetically modified mice. RESULTS: Linkage analysis identified a single significant locus on chromosome 1q23.2 with a lod score of 4.98. This region contained the KCNJ10 gene, which encodes a potassium channel expressed in the brain, inner ear, and kidney. Sequencing of this candidate gene revealed homozygous missense mutations in affected persons in both families. These mutations, when expressed heterologously in xenopus oocytes, caused significant and specific decreases in potassium currents. Mice with Kcnj10 deletions became dehydrated, with definitive evidence of renal salt wasting. CONCLUSIONS: Mutations in KCNJ10 cause a specific disorder, consisting of epilepsy, ataxia, sensorineural deafness, and tubulopathy. Our findings indicate that KCNJ10 plays a major role in renal salt handling and, hence, possibly also in blood-pressure maintenance and its regulation.

Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium channels in gastrointestinal epithelia.

Epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract are an important barrier between the "milieu interne" and the luminal content of the gut. They perform transport of nutrients, salts, and water, which is essential for the maintenance of body homeostasis. In these epithelia, a variety of K(+) channels are expressed, allowing adaptation to different needs. This review provides an overview of the current literature that has led to a better understanding of the multifaceted function of gastrointestinal K(+) channels, thereby shedding light on pathophysiological implications of impaired channel function. For instance, in gastric mucosa, K(+) channel function is a prerequisite for acid secretion of parietal cells. In epithelial cells of small intestine, K(+) channels provide the driving force for electrogenic transport processes across the plasma membrane, and they are involved in cell volume regulation. Fine tuning of salt and water transport and of K(+) homeostasis occurs in colonic epithelia cells, where K(+) channels are involved in secretory and reabsorptive processes. Furthermore, there is growing evidence for changes in epithelial K(+) channel expression during cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and, under pathological conditions, carcinogenesis. In the future, integrative approaches using functional and postgenomic/proteomic techniques will help us to gain comprehensive insights into the role of K(+) channels of the gastrointestinal tract.

Invalidation of TASK1 potassium channels disrupts adrenal gland zonation and mineralocorticoid homeostasis.

TASK1 (KCNK3) and TASK3 (KCNK9) are two-pore domain potassium channels highly expressed in adrenal glands. TASK1/TASK3 heterodimers are believed to contribute to the background conductance whose inhibition by angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone secretion. We used task1-/- mice to analyze the role of this channel in adrenal gland function. Task1-/- exhibited severe hyperaldosteronism independent of salt intake, hypokalemia, and arterial 'low-renin' hypertension. The hyperaldosteronism was fully remediable by glucocorticoids. The aldosterone phenotype was caused by an adrenocortical zonation defect. Aldosterone synthase was absent in the outer cortex normally corresponding to the zona glomerulosa, but abundant in the reticulo-fasciculata zone. The impaired mineralocorticoid homeostasis and zonation were independent of the sex in young mice, but were restricted to females in adults. Patch-clamp experiments on adrenal cells suggest that task3 and other K+ channels compensate for the task1 absence. Adrenal zonation appears as a dynamic process that even can take place in adulthood. The striking changes in the adrenocortical architecture in task1-/- mice are the first demonstration of the causative role of a potassium channel in development/differentiation.

No potassium, no acid: K+ channels and gastric acid secretion.

The gastric H+-K+-ATPase pumps H+ into the lumen and takes up K+ in parallel. In the acid-producing parietal cells, luminal KCNE2/KCNQ1 K+ channels play a pivotal role in replenishing K+ in the luminal fluid. Inactivation of KCNE2/KCNQ1 channels abrogates gastric acid secretion and dramatically modifies the architecture of gastric mucosa.

KCNE beta subunits determine pH sensitivity of KCNQ1 potassium channels.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Heteromeric KCNEx/KCNQ1 (=KvLQT1, Kv7.1) K(+) channels are important for repolarization of cardiac myocytes, endolymph secretion in the inner ear, gastric acid secretion, and transport across epithelia. They are modulated by pH in a complex way: homomeric KCNQ1 is inhibited by external acidification (low pH(e)); KCNE2/KCNQ1 is activated; and for KCNE1/KCNQ1, variable effects have been reported. METHODS: The role of KCNE subunits for the effect of pH(e) on KCNQ1 was analyzed in transfected COS cells and cardiac myocytes by the patch-clamp technique. RESULTS: In outside-out patches of transfected cells, hKCNE2/hKCNQ1 current was increased by acidification down to pH 4.5. Chimeras with the acid-insensitive hKCNE3 revealed that the extracellular N-terminus and at least part of the transmembrane domain of hKCNE2 are needed for activation by low pH(e). hKCNE1/hKCNQ1 heteromeric channels exhibited marked changes of biophysical properties at low pH(e): The slowly activating hKCNE1/hKCNQ1 channels were converted into constitutively open, non-deactivating channels. Experiments on guinea pig and mouse cardiac myocytes pointed to an important role of KCNQ1 during acidosis implicating a significant contribution to cardiac repolarization under acidic conditions. CONCLUSION: External pH can modify current amplitude and biophysical properties of KCNQ1. KCNE subunits work as molecular switches by modulating the pH sensitivity of human KCNQ1.

Effects of I(Ks) channel inhibitors in insulin-secreting INS-1 cells.

Potassium channels regulate insulin secretion. The closure of K(ATP) channels leads to membrane depolarisation, which triggers Ca(2+) influx and stimulates insulin secretion. The subsequent activation of K(+) channels terminates secretion. We examined whether KCNQ1 channels are expressed in pancreatic beta-cells and analysed their functional role. Using RT/PCR cellular mRNA of KCNQ1 but not of KCNE1 channels was detected in INS-1 cells. Effects of two sulfonamide analogues, 293B and HMR1556, inhibitors of KCNQ1 channels, were examined on voltage-activated outwardly rectifying K(+) currents using the patch-clamp method. It was found that 293B inhibited 60% of whole-cell outward currents induced by voltage pulses from -70 to +50 mV with a concentration for half-maximal inhibition (IC(50)) of 37 microM. The other sulfonamide analogue HMR1556 inhibited 48% of the outward current with an IC(50) of 7 microM. The chromanol 293B had no effect on tolbutamide-sensitive K(ATP) channels. Action potentials induced by current injections were broadened and after-repolarisation was attenuated by 293B. Insulin secretion in the presence but not in the absence of tolbutamide was significantly increased by 293B. These results suggest that 293B- and HMR1556-sensitive channels, probably in concert with other voltage-activated K(+) channels, influence action potential duration and frequency and thus insulin secretion.

Heteromeric KCNE2/KCNQ1 potassium channels in the luminal membrane of gastric parietal cells.

Recently, we and others have shown that luminal K+ recycling via KCNQ1 K+ channels is required for gastric H+ secretion. Inhibition of KCNQ1 by the chromanol 293B strongly diminished H+ secretion. The present study aims at clarifying KCNQ1 subunit composition, subcellular localization, regulation and pharmacology in parietal cells. Using in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence techniques, we identified KCNE2 as the beta subunit of KCNQ1 in the luminal membrane compartment of parietal cells. Expressed in COS cells, hKCNE2/hKCNQ1 channels were activated by acidic pH, PIP2, cAMP and purinergic receptor stimulation. Qualitatively similar results were obtained in mouse parietal cells. Confocal microscopy revealed stimulation-induced translocation of H+,K+-ATPase from tubulovesicles towards the luminal pole of parietal cells, whereas distribution of KCNQ1 K+ channels did not change to the same extent. In COS cells the 293B-related substance IKs124 blocked hKCNE2/hKCNQ1 with an IC50 of 8 nM. Inhibition of hKCNE1- and hKCNE3-containing channels was weaker with IC50 values of 370 and 440 nM, respectively. In conclusion, KCNQ1 coassembles with KCNE2 to form acid-activated luminal K+ channels of parietal cells. KCNQ1/KCNE2 is activated during acid secretion via several pathways but probably not by targeting of the channel to the membrane. IKs124 could serve as a leading compound in the development of subunit-specific KCNE2/KCNQ1 blockers to treat peptic ulcers.

Proximal renal tubular acidosis in TASK2 K+ channel-deficient mice reveals a mechanism for stabilizing bicarbonate transport.

The acid- and volume-sensitive TASK2 K+ channel is strongly expressed in renal proximal tubules and papillary collecting ducts. This study was aimed at investigating the role of TASK2 in renal bicarbonate reabsorption by using the task2 -/- mouse as a model. After backcross to C57BL6, task2 -/- mice showed an increased perinatal mortality and, in adulthood, a reduced body weight and arterial blood pressure. Patch-clamp experiments on proximal tubular cells indicated that TASK2 was activated during HCO3- transport. In control inulin clearance measurements, task2 -/- mice showed normal NaCl and water excretion. During i.v. NaHCO3 perfusion, however, renal Na+ and water reabsorption capacity was reduced in -/- animals. In conscious task2 -/- mice, blood pH, HCO3- concentration, and systemic base excess were reduced but urinary pH and HCO3- were increased. These data suggest that task2 -/- mice exhibit metabolic acidosis caused by renal loss of HCO3-. Both in vitro and in vivo results demonstrate the specific coupling of TASK2 activity to HCO3- transport through external alkalinization. The consequences of the task2 gene inactivation in mice are reminiscent of the clinical manifestations seen in human proximal renal tubular acidosis syndrome.

SGK1 increases Na,K-ATP cell-surface expression and function in Xenopus laevis oocytes.

The Na(+)-retaining hormone aldosterone increases the cell-surface expression of the luminal epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and the basolateral Na(+) pump (Na,K-ATPase) in aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron cells in a coordinated fashion. To address the question of whether aldosterone-induced serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase-1 (SGK1) might be involved in mediating this regulation of Na,K-ATPase subcellular localization, similar to that of the epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC), we co-expressed the Na,K-ATPase (rat alpha 1- and Xenopus laevis beta 1-subunits) and Xenopus SGK1 in Xenopus oocytes. Measurements of the Na(+) pump current showed that wild-type SGK1 increases the function of exogenous Na,K-ATPase at the surface of Xenopus oocytes. This appeared to be secondary to an increase in Na,K-ATPase cell-surface expression as visualized by Western blotting of surface-biotinylated proteins. In contrast, the functional surface expression of two other exogenous transporters, the heterodimeric amino acid transporter LAT1-4F2hc and the Na(+)/phosphate cotransporter NaPi-IIa, was not increased by SGK1 co-expression. The total pool of exogenous Na,K-ATPase was increased by the co-expression of SGK1, and similarly also by ENaC co-expression. This latter effect depended on the [Na(+)] of the buffer and was not additive to that of SGK1. When the total Na,K-ATPase was increased by ENaC co-expression, SGK1 still increased Na,K-ATPase cell-surface expression. These observations in Xenopus oocytes suggest the possibility that SGK1 induction and/or activation could participate in the coordinated regulation of Na,K-ATPase and ENaC cell-surface expression in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron.

Short-term aldosterone action on Na,K-ATPase surface expression: role of aldosterone-induced SGK1?

Aldosterone controls extracellular volume and blood pressure by regulating Na(+) reabsorption across epithelial cells of the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron (ASDN). This effect is mediated by a coordinate action on the luminal channel ENaC (generally rate limiting) and the basolateral Na,K-ATPase. Long-term effects of aldosterone (starting within 3 to 6 hours and increasing over days) are mediated by the direct and indirect induction of stable elements of the Na(+) transport machinery (e.g., Na,K-ATPase alpha subunit), whereas short-term effects appear to be mediated by the upregulation of short-lived elements of the machinery (e.g., ENaC alpha subunit) and of regulatory proteins, such as the serum- and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase SGK1. We have recently shown that in cortical collecting duct (CCD) from adrenalectomized (ADX) rats, the increase in Na,K-ATPase activity (approximately threefold in 3 h), induced by a single aldosterone injection, can be fully accounted for by the increase in Na,K-ATPase cell-surface expression. Using the model cell line mpkCCD(cl4), we showed that the parallel increase in Na,K-ATPase function [assessed by Na(+) pump current (I(p)) measurements] and cell-surface expression depends on transcription and translation, and that it is not secondary to a change in apical Na(+) influx. As a first approach to address the question whether the aldosterone-induced regulatory protein SGK1 might play a role in mediating Na,K-ATPase translocation, we have used the Xenopus laevis expression system. SGK1 coexpression indeed increased both the Na(+) pump current and the surface expression of pumps containing the rat alpha1 subunits. In summary, aldosterone controls Na(+) reabsorption in the short term not only by regulating the apical cell-surface expression of ENaC but also by coordinately acting on the basolateral cell-surface expression of the Na,K-ATPase. Results obtained in the Xenopus oocyte expression system suggest the possibility that this effect could be mediated in part by the aldosterone-induced kinase SGK1.

SGK1: aldosterone-induced relay of Na+ transport regulation in distal kidney nephron cells.

Aldosterone increases within 30 min renal Na+reabsorption and K+secretion by a mechanism that is triggered at the level of gene transcription. Thus, gene products that are rapidly up- or down-regulated transmit this effect to the transport machinery within the distal nephron target cells. One such rapidly up-regulated gene product is a structural element of the transport machinery, namely the a subunit of ENaC. Its amount might in certain conditions play a rate limiting role for Na+transport. Cell-surface localization and function of ENaC and of the Na,K-ATPase are also tightly controlled by a complex regulatory network and aldosterone appears to acutely regulate the expression of elements of this network such as the small G-protein K-Ras (in A6 cells) and the kinase SGK1 (also in ENaC-expressing cells of the mammalian distal nephron). The kinase SGK1 is an early aldosterone-induced protein that relays signals from pathways that are transmitted via PDK1/2 and possibly PKA. Active SGK1 has been shown to increase ENaC and Na,K-ATPase cell-surface expression in Xenopus oocytes. This effect at the level of ENaC has been recently shown to be mediated by the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 which is a direct target of SGK1. Once phosphorylated by SGK1, Nedd4-2 is prevented from interacting with ENaC and thus from decreasing ENaC cell-surface expression. This SGK1-Nedd4-2-ENaC pathway is the first direct link between aldosterone-induced transcriptional regulation and the function of the Na+transport machinery to be unravelled. The physiological importance of this pathway for mediating the aldosterone response in different target epithelia remains to be verified in vivo, in particular in view of the axial gradient of ENaC apical translocation observed along the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron.