Mechanical and Thermal Analysis of Duroplastic Matrix Composites over a Range of Temperatures.

It is commonly acknowledged that polymer composites in service are often subjected to not only intricate mechanical loads but also harsh environmental conditions. The mechanical and thermal properties of five particular composites are explored here. The composites are composed of laminates of glass cloth type "E" sheet infilled with a duroplastic matrix. This is a thermoset polymer-epoxy resin with different molecular weights. The composites were fabricated by IZOERG company, which is based in Poland. The final articles were 1.5 mm thick by 60 cm long and 30 cm wide, with the glass layers arranged parallel to the thickness. Young's modulus and tensile strength were measured at room temperature. Using the thermal analysis of dynamic mechanical properties (DMTA), the values of the storage modulus and the loss modulus were determined, and the damping factor was used to determine the glass transition temperature (Tg). It was revealed that the nature of changes in the storage modulus, loss modulus, and damping factor of composite materials depends on the type of epoxy resin used. Thermal expansion is a crucial parameter when choosing a material for application in cryogenic conditions. Thanks to the TMA method, thermal expansion coefficients for composite materials were determined. The results show that the highest value of the coefficient of thermal expansion leads the laminate EP_4_2 based on brominated epoxy resin cured with novolac P. Duroplastic composites were characterized at cryogenic temperatures, and the results are interesting for developing cryogenic applications, including electric motors, generators, magnets, and other devices.

Indocyanine green and iohexol loaded hydroxyapatite in poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone)-based composite for bimodal near-infrared fluorescence- and X-ray-based imaging.

This study aimed to develop material for multimodal imaging by means of X-ray and near-infrared containing FDA- and EMA-approved iohexol and indocyanine green (ICG). The mentioned contrast agents (CAs) are hydrophilic and amphiphilic, respectively, which creates difficulties in fabrication of functional polymeric composites for fiducial markers (FMs) with usage thereof. Therefore, this study exploited for the first time the possibility of enhancing the radiopacity and introduction of the NIR fluorescence of FMs by adsorption of the CAs on hydroxyapatite (HAp) nanoparticles. The particles were embedded in the poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone) (P[LAcoCL]) matrix resulting in the composite material for bimodal near-infrared fluorescence- and X-ray-based imaging. The applied method of material preparation provided homogenous distribution of both CAs with high iohexol loading efficiency and improved fluorescence signal due to hindered ICG aggregation. The material possessed profound contrasting properties for both imaging modalities. Its stability was evaluated during in vitro experiments in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and foetal bovine serum (FBS) solutions. The addition of HAp nanoparticles had significant effect on the fluorescence signal. The X-ray radiopacity was stable within minimum 11 weeks, even though the addition of ICG contributed to a faster release of iohexol. The stiffness of the material was not affected by iohexol or ICG, but incorporation of HAp nanoparticles elevated the values of bending modulus by approximately 70%. Moreover, the performed cell study revealed that all tested materials were not cytotoxic. Thus, the developed material can be successfully used for fabrication of FMs.

Mesoporous Particle Embedded Nanofibrous Scaffolds Sustain Biological Factors for Tendon Tissue Engineering.

In recent years, fiber-based systems have been explored in the frame of tissue engineering due to their robustness in recapitulating the architecture and mechanical properties of native tissues. Such scaffolds offer anisotropic architecture capable of reproducing the native collagen fibers' orientation and distribution. Moreover, fibrous constructs might provide a biomimetic environment for cell encapsulation and proliferation as well as influence their orientation and distribution. In this work, we combine two fiber fabrication techniques, such as electrospinning and wet-spinning, in order to obtain novel cell-laden 3D fibrous layered scaffolds which can simultaneously provide: (i) mechanical support; (ii) suitable microenvironment for 3D cell encapsulation; and (iii) loading and sustained release of growth factors for promoting the differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hB-MSCs). The constructs are formed from wet-spun hydrogel fibers loaded with hB-MSCs deposited on a fibrous composite electrospun matrix made of polycaprolactone, polyamide 6, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles enriched with bone morphogenetic protein-12 (BMP-12). Morphological and mechanical characterizations of the structures were carried out, and the growth factor release was assessed. The biological response in terms of cell viability, alignment, differentiation, and extracellular matrix production was investigated. Ex vivo testing of the layered structure was performed to prove the layers' integrity when subjected to mechanical stretching in the physiological range. The results reveal that 3D layered scaffolds can be proposed as valid candidates for tendon tissue engineering.

Investigating bevacizumab and its fragments sustained release from intravitreal administrated PLGA Microspheres: A modeling approach.

Intravitreal administrated bevacizumab has emerged as an effective antibody for suppressing VEGF expression in age-related macular degeneration (AMD) therapy. This study discusses certain issues related to the sustained release of bevacizumab from intravitreal poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres. A computational model elucidating the ocular kinetics of bevacizumab is demonstrated, wherein the release of the drug from PLGA microspheres is modeled using the Koizumi approach, complemented by an empirical model that links the kinetics of bevacizumab release to a size-dependent hydrolytic degradation of the drug-loaded polymeric microparticles. The results of the simulation were then rigorously validated against experimental data. The as-developed model proved remarkably accurate in predicting the time-concentration profiles obtained following the intravitreal injection of PLGA microspheres of significantly different sizes. Notably, the time-concentration profiles of bevacizumab in distinct ocular tissues were almost unaffected by the size of the intravitreally administered PLGA microparticles. Furthermore, the model successfully predicted the retinal concentration of bevacizumab and its fragments (e.g., ranibizumab) administrated in the form of a solution. As such, this model for drug sustained release and ocular transport holds tremendous potential for facilitating the reliable evaluation of planned anti-VEGF therapies.

On the Mechanical Properties of Microfibre-Based 3D Chitinous Scaffolds from Selected Verongiida Sponges.

Skeletal constructs of diverse marine sponges remain to be a sustainable source of biocompatible porous biopolymer-based 3D scaffolds for tissue engineering and technology, especially structures isolated from cultivated demosponges, which belong to the Verongiida order, due to the renewability of their chitinous, fibre-containing architecture focused attention. These chitinous scaffolds have already shown excellent and promising results in biomimetics and tissue engineering with respect to their broad diversity of cells. However, the mechanical features of these constructs have been poorly studied before. For the first time, the elastic moduli characterising the chitinous samples have been determined. Moreover, nanoindentation of the selected bromotyrosine-containing as well as pigment-free chitinous scaffolds isolated from selected verongiids was used in the study for comparative purposes. It was shown that the removal of bromotyrosines from chitin scaffolds results in a reduced elastic modulus; however, their hardness was relatively unaffected.

Deep eutectic solvent-assisted fabrication of bioinspired 3D carbon-calcium phosphate scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Tissue engineering is a burgeoning field focused on repairing damaged tissues through the combination of bodily cells with highly porous scaffold biomaterials, which serve as templates for tissue regeneration, thus facilitating the growth of new tissue. Carbon materials, constituting an emerging class of superior materials, are currently experiencing remarkable scientific and technological advancements. Consequently, the development of novel 3D carbon-based composite materials has become significant for biomedicine. There is an urgent need for the development of hybrids that will combine the unique bioactivity of ceramics with the performance of carbonaceous materials. Considering these requirements, herein, we propose a straightforward method of producing a 3D carbon-based scaffold that resembles the structural features of spongin, even on the nanometric level of their hierarchical organization. The modification of spongin with calcium phosphate was achieved in a deep eutectic solvent (choline chloride : urea, 1 : 2). The holistic characterization of the scaffolds confirms their remarkable structural features (i.e., porosity, connectivity), along with the biocompatibility of α-tricalcium phosphate (α-TCP), rendering them a promising candidate for stem cell-based tissue-engineering. Culturing human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) on the surface of the biomimetic scaffold further verifies its growth-facilitating properties, promoting the differentiation of these cells in the osteogenesis direction. ALP activity was significantly higher in osteogenic medium compared to proliferation, indicating the differentiation of hMSC towards osteoblasts. However, no significant difference between C and C-αTCP in the same medium type was observed.

Calcification alters the viscoelastic properties of tendon fascicle bundles depending on matrix content.

Tendon fascicle bundles are often used as biological grafts and thus must meet certain quality requirements, such as excluding calcification, which alters the biomechanical properties of soft tissues. In this work, we investigate the influence of early-stage calcification on the mechanical and structural properties of tendon fascicle bundles with varying matrix content. The calcification process was modeled using sample incubation in concentrated simulated body fluid. Mechanical and structural properties were investigated using uniaxial tests with relaxation periods, dynamic mechanical analysis, as well as magnetic resonance imaging and atomic force microscopy. Mechanical tests showed that the initial phase of calcification causes an increase in the elasticity, storage, and loss modulus, as well as a drop in the normalized value of hysteresis. Further calcification of the samples results in decreased modulus of elasticity and a slight increase in the normalized value of hysteresis. Analysis via MRI and scanning electron microscopy showed that incubation alters fibrillar relationships within the tendon structure and the flow of body fluids. In the initial stage of calcification, calcium phosphate crystals are barely visible; however, extending the incubation time for the next 14 days results in the appearance of calcium phosphate crystals within the tendon structure and leads to damage in its structure. Our results show that the calcification process modifies the collagen-matrix relationships and leads to a change in their mechanical properties. These findings will help to understand the pathogenesis of clinical conditions caused by calcification process, leading to the development of effective treatments for these conditions. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This study investigates how calcium mineral deposition in tendons affects their mechanical response and which processes are responsible for this phenomenon. By analyzing the elastic and viscoelastic properties of animal fascicle bundles affected by calcification induced via incubation in concentrated simulated body fluid, the study sheds light on the relationship between structural and biochemical changes in tendons and their altered mechanical response. This understanding is crucial for optimizing tendinopathy treatment and preventing tendon injury. The findings provide insights into the calcification pathway and its resulting changes in the biomechanical behaviors of affected tendons, which have been previously unclear.

Study of Correlation between Structure and Shape-Memory Effect/Drug-Release Profile of Polyurethane/Hydroxyapatite Composites for Antibacterial Implants.

The effectiveness of multifunctional composites that combine a shape-memory polyurethane (PU) matrix with hydroxyapatite (HA) as a bioactive agent and antibiotics molecules results from a specific composite structure. In this study, structure-function correlations of PU-based composites consisting of 3, 5, and 10 (wt%) of HA and (5 wt%) of gentamicin sulfate (GeS) as a model drug were investigated. The performed analysis revealed that increasing HA content up to 5 wt% enhanced hydrogen-bonding interaction within the soft segments of the PU. Differential-scanning-calorimetry (DSC) analysis confirmed the semi-crystalline structure of the composites. Hydroxyapatite enhanced thermal stability was confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and the water contact angle evaluated hydrophilicity. The shape-recovery coefficient (Rr) measured in water, decreased from 94% for the PU to 86% for the PU/GeS sample and to 88-91% for the PU/HA/GeS composites. These values were positively correlated with hydrogen-bond interactions evaluated using the Fourier-transform-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Additionally, it was found that the shape-recovery process initiates drug release. After shape recovery, the drug concentration in water was 17 µg/mL for the PU/GeS sample and 33-47 µg/mL for the PU HA GeS composites. Antibacterial properties of developed composites were confirmed by the agar-diffusion test against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis.

Long-Term In Vitro Assessment of Biodegradable Radiopaque Composites for Fiducial Marker Fabrication.

Biodegradable polymer-based composite materials may be successfully utilised to fabricate fiducial markers (FMs), which are intended to precisely label tumour margins during image-guided surgery or radiotherapy. However, due to matrix degradability, the stability of the functional properties of FMs depends on the chosen polymer. Thus, this study aimed to investigate novel radiopaque composites which varied in the polymeric matrix-polycaprolactone (PCL), poly(L-lactide-co-caprolactone) (P[LAcoCL]) with two molar ratios (70:30 and 85:15), and poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) (with molar ratio 82:18). The radiopaque component of the materials was a mixture of barium sulphate and hydroxyapatite. The changes in water contact angle, stiffness, and radiopacity occurring during the 24-week-long degradation experiment were examined for the first time. This study comprehensively analyses the microstructural causes of composites behaviour within degradation experiments using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), gel permitted chromatography (GPC), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The obtained results suggest that the utilized biodegradable matrix plays an essential role in radiopaque composite properties and stability thereof. This long-term in vitro assessment enabled a comparison of the materials and aided in choosing the most favourable composite for FMs' fabrication.

Naturally prefabricated 3D chitinous skeletal scaffold of marine demosponge origin, biomineralized ex vivo as a functional biomaterial.

Solutions developed by nature for structural and functional optimization of three-dimensional (3D) skeletal structures provide unique windows not only into the evolutionary pathways of organisms, but also into bioinspired materials science and biomimetics. Great examples are naturally formed 3D chitinous scaffolds of marine sponge remain a focus of modern biomedicine and tissue engineering. Due to its properties like renewability, bioactivity, and biodegradability such constructs became very interesting players as components of organic-inorganic biocomposites. Herein, we developed chitin-based biocomposites by biomimetic ex vivo deposition of calcium carbonate particles using hemolymph from the cultivated mollusk Cornu aspersum and chitinous matrix from the marine demosponge Aplysina fistularis. The biological potential of the developed biofunctionalized scaffolds for bone tissue engineering was evaluated by investigating the spreading and viability of a human fetal osteoblast cell line has been determined for the first time. Performed analyses like dynamic mechanical analysis and atomic force microscopy shown that biofunctionalized scaffold possess about 4 times higher mechanical resistance. Moreover, several topographical changes have been observed, as e.g., surface roughness (Rq) increased from 31.75 ± 2.7 nm to 120.7 ± 0.3 nm. The results are indicating its potential for use in the modification of cell delivery systems in future biomedical applications.

The dispersion of viscoelastic properties of fascicle bundles within the tendon results from the presence of interfascicular matrix and flow of body fluids.

In this work, we investigate differences in the mechanical and structural properties of tendon fascicle bundles dissected from different areas of bovine tendons. The properties of tendon fascicle bundles were investigated by means of uniaxial tests with relaxation periods and hysteresis, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), as well as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Uniaxial tests with relaxation periods revealed greater elastic modulus, hysteresis, as well as stress drop during the relaxation of samples dissected from the posterior side of the tendon. However, the normalized stress relaxation curves did not show a statistically significant difference in the stress drop between specimens cut from different zones or between different strain levels. Using dynamic mechanical analysis, we found that fascicle bundles dissected from the anterior side of the tendon had lower storage and loss moduli, which could result from altered fluid flow within the interfascicular matrix (IFM). The lower water content, diffusivity, and higher fractional anisotropy of the posterior part of the tendon, as observed using MRI, indicates a different structure of the IFM, which controls the flow of fluids within the tendon. Our results show that the viscoelastic response to dynamic loading is correlated with fluid flow within the IFM, which was confirmed during analysis of the MRI results. In contrast to this, the long-term relaxation of tendon fascicle bundles is controlled by viscoplasticity of the IFM and depends on the spatial distribution of the matrix within the tendon. Comparison of results from tensile tests, DMA, and MRI gives new insight into tendon mechanics and the role of the IFM. These findings may be useful in improving the diagnosis of tendon injury and effectiveness of medical treatments for tendinopathies.

Investigation into morphological and electromechanical surface properties of reduced-graphene-oxide-loaded composite fibers for bone tissue engineering applications: A comprehensive nanoscale study using atomic force microscopy approach.

We decided to implement an extensive atomic force microscopy study in order to get deeper understanding of surface-related nanoscale properties of 3D printed pristine polycaprolactone and its reduced-graphene-oxide-loaded composites. The study included surface visualization and roughness quantification, elastic modulus and adhesion force assessment with force spectroscopy, along with kelvin probe force microscopy evaluation of local changes of surface potential. Atomic force microscopy examination was followed by scanning electron microscopy visualization and wettability assessment. Moreover, systematic examination of reduced graphene oxide flakes fabricated exclusively for this study was performed, including: scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and combustion elemental analysis. The addition of reduced graphene oxide resulted in thickening of the composite fibers and surface roughness enhancement. In addition, elastic modulus of composite fibers was higher and at the same time adhesion forces between scanning probe and tested surface was lower than for pristine polymeric ones. Lastly, we recorded local (nanoscale) alterations of surface potential of fibers with addition of graphene-derivative. The results clearly suggest graphene derivative's dose-dependent alteration of elastic modulus and adhesion force recorded with atomic force microscope. Moreover, changes of the material's surface properties were followed by changes of its electrical properties.

Novel 3D Hybrid Nanofiber Scaffolds for Bone Regeneration.

Development of hybrid scaffolds and their formation methods occupies an important place in tissue engineering. In this paper, a novel method of 3D hybrid scaffold formation is presented as well as an explanation of the differences in scaffold properties, which were a consequence of different crosslinking mechanisms. Scaffolds were formed from 3D freeze-dried gelatin and electrospun poly(lactide-co-glicolide) (PLGA) fibers in a ratio of 1:1 w/w. In order to enhance osteoblast proliferation, the fibers were coated with hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HAp) using sonochemical processing. All scaffolds were crosslinked using an EDC/NHS solution. The scaffolds' morphology was imaged using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The chemical composition of the scaffolds was analyzed using several methods. Water absorption and mass loss investigations proved a higher crosslinking degree of the hybrid scaffolds than a pure gelatin scaffold, caused by additional interactions between gelatin, PLGA, and HAp. Additionally, mechanical properties of the 3D hybrid scaffolds were higher than traditional hydrogels. In vitro studies revealed that fibroblasts and osteoblasts proliferated and migrated well on the 3D hybrid scaffolds, and also penetrated their structure during the seven days of the experiment.

3D bioprinted hydrogel model incorporating ß-tricalcium phosphate for calcified cartilage tissue engineering.

One promising strategy to reconstruct osteochondral defects relies on 3D bioprinted three-zonal structures comprised of hyaline cartilage, calcified cartilage, and subchondral bone. So far, several studies have pursued the regeneration of either hyaline cartilage or bone in vitro while-despite its key role in the osteochondral region-only few of them have targeted the calcified layer. In this work, we present a 3D biomimetic hydrogel scaffold containing ß-tricalcium phosphate (TCP) for engineering calcified cartilage through a co-axial needle system implemented in extrusion-based bioprinting process. After a thorough bioink optimization, we showed that 0.5% w/v TCP is the optimal concentration forming stable scaffolds with high shape fidelity and endowed with biological properties relevant for the development of calcified cartilage. In particular, we investigate the effect induced by ceramic nano-particles over the differentiation capacity of bioprinted bone marrow-derived human mesenchymal stem cells in hydrogel scaffolds cultured up to 21 d in chondrogenic media. To confirm the potential of the presented approach to generate a functional in vitro model of calcified cartilage tissue, we evaluated quantitatively gene expression of relevant chondrogenic (COL1, COL2, COL10A1, ACAN) and osteogenic (ALPL, BGLAP) gene markers by means of RT-qPCR and qualitatively by means of fluorescence immunocytochemistry.

Tendon Tissue Engineering: Effects of Mechanical and Biochemical Stimulation on Stem Cell Alignment on Cell-Laden Hydrogel Yarns.

Fiber-based approaches hold great promise for tendon tissue engineering enabling the possibility of manufacturing aligned hydrogel filaments that can guide collagen fiber orientation, thereby providing a biomimetic micro-environment for cell attachment, orientation, migration, and proliferation. In this study, a 3D system composed of cell-laden, highly aligned hydrogel yarns is designed and obtained via wet spinning in order to reproduce the morphology and structure of tendon fascicles. A bioink composed of alginate and gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) is optimized for spinning and loaded with human bone morrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBM-MSCs). The produced scaffolds are subjected to mechanical stretching to recapitulate the strains occurring in native tendon tissue. Stem cell differentiation is promoted by addition of bone morphogenetic protein 12 (BMP-12) in the culture medium. The aligned orientation of the fibers combined with mechanical stimulation results in highly preferential longitudinal cell orientation and demonstrates enhanced collagen type I and III expression. Additionally, the combination of biochemical and mechanical stimulations promotes the expression of specific tenogenic markers, signatures of efficient cell differentiation towards tendon. The obtained results suggest that the proposed 3D cell-laden aligned system can be used for engineering of scaffolds for tendon regeneration.

Binary bioactive glass composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering-Structure and mechanical properties in micro and nano scale. A preliminary study.

Composite scaffolds of bioactive glass (SiO2-CaO) and bioresorbable polyesters: poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL) were produced by polymer coating of porous foams. Their structure and mechanical properties were investigated in micro and nanoscale, by the means of scanning electron microscopy, PeakForce Quantitative Nanomechanical Property Mapping (PF-QNM) atomic force microscopy, micro-computed tomography and contact angle measurements. This is one of the first studies in which the nanomechanical properties (elastic modulus, adhesion) were measured and mapped simultaneously with topography imaging (PF-QNM AFM) for bioactive glass and bioactive glass - polymer coated scaffolds. Our findings show that polymer coated scaffolds had higher average roughness and lower stiffness in comparison to pure bioactive glass scaffolds. Such coating-dependent scaffold properties may promote different cells-scaffold interaction.

Engineering Human-Scale Artificial Bone Grafts for Treating Critical-Size Bone Defects.

The manufacturing of artificial bone grafts can potentially circumvent the issues associated with current bone grafting treatments for critical-size bone defects caused by pathological disorders, trauma, or massive tumor ablation. In this study, we report on a potentially patient-specific fabrication process in which replicas of bone defects, in particular zygomatic and mandibular bones and phalanxes of a hand finger, were manufactured by laser stereolithography and used as templates for the creation of PDMS molds. Gas-in-water foams were cast in the molds, rapidly frozen, freeze-dried, and cross-linked. Since bone matrix consists essentially of collagen and hydroxyapatite, biomimetic scaffolds were fabricated using gelatin and hydroxyapatite in a ratio very similar to that found in bone. The obtained composite scaffolds were excellent replicas of the original bone defects models and presented both a superficial and internal porous texture adequate for cellular and blood vessels infiltration. In particular, scaffolds exhibited a porous texture consisting of pores and interconnects with average size of about 300 and 100 µm, respectively, and a porosity of 90%. In vitro culture tests using hMSCs demonstrated scaffold biocompatibility and capacity in inducing differentiation toward osteoblasts progenitors. In vivo cellularized implants showed bone matrix deposition and recruitment of blood vessels. Overall, the technique/materials combination used in this work led to the fabrication of promising mechanically stable, bioactive, and biocompatible composite scaffolds with well-defined architectures potentially valuable in the regeneration of patient-specific bone defects.

Fabrication, multi-scale characterization and in-vitro evaluation of porous hybrid bioactive glass polymer-coated scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.

Bioactive glass-based scaffolds are commonly used in bone tissue engineering due to their biocompatibility, mechanical strength and adequate porous structure. However, their hydrophobicity and brittleness limits their practical application. In this study, to improve nanomechanical properties of such scaffolds, pure bioactive hybrid glass and two bioactive hybrid glass-polymer coated composites were fabricated. A complementary micro and nanoscale characterization techniques (SEM, AFM, µCT, FTIR, compressive test, goniometer) were implemented for detailed description of architecture and physicochemical properties of hybrid bioactive glass-based scaffolds with emphasis on nano-mechanics. The final step was in-vitro evaluation of three dimensional macroporous structures. Our findings show that after polymer addition, architecture, topography and surface properties of the scaffolds were changed and promoted favoured behaviour of the cells.

Micro and nanoscale characterization of poly(DL-lactic-co-glycolic acid) films subjected to the L929 cells and the cyclic mechanical load.

In this paper, the effect of the presence of L929 fibroblast cells and a cyclic load application on the kinetics of the degradation of amorphous PLGA films was examined. Complex micro and nano morphological, mechanical and physico-chemical studies were performed to assess the degradation of the tested material. For this purpose, molecular weight, glass transition temperature, specimen morphology (SEM, µCT) and topography (AFM) as well as the stiffness of the material were measured. The study showed that the presence of living cells along with a mechanical load accelerates the PLGA degradation in comparison to the degradation occurring in acellular media: PBS and DMEM. The drop in molecular weight observed was accompanied by a distinct increase in the tensile modulus and surface roughness, especially in the case of the film degradation in the presence of cells. The suspected cause of the rise in stiffness during the degradation of PLGA films is a reduction in the molecular mobility of the distinctive superficial layer resulting from severe structural changes caused by the surface degradation. In conclusion, all the micro and nanoscale properties of amorphous PLGA considered in the study are sensitive to the presence of L929 cells, as well as to a cyclic load applied during the degradation process.