Inducing Mitotic Catastrophe as a Therapeutic Approach to Improve Outcomes in Ewing Sarcoma.

Ewing sarcoma (EWS) is an aggressive pediatric malignancy of the bone and soft tissues in need of novel therapeutic options. To identify potential therapeutic targets, we focused on essential biological pathways that are upregulated by EWS-FLI1, the primary oncogenic driver of EWS, including mitotic proteins such as Aurora kinase A (AURKA) and kinesin family member 15 (KIF15) and its binding partner, targeting protein for Xklp2 (TPX2). KIF15/TPX2 cooperates with KIF11, a key mitotic kinesin essential for mitotic spindle orientation. Given the lack of clinical-grade KIF15/TPX2 inhibitors, we chose to target KIF11 (using SB-743921) in combination with AURKA (using VIC-1911) given that phosphorylation of KIF15S1169 by Aurora A is required for its targeting to the spindle. In vitro, the drug combination demonstrated strong synergy (Bliss score ≥ 10) at nanomolar doses. Colony formation assay revealed significant reduction in plating efficiency (1-3%) and increased percentage accumulation of cells in the G2/M phase with the combination treatment (45-52%) upon cell cycle analysis, indicating mitotic arrest. In vivo studies in EWS xenograft mouse models showed significant tumor reduction and overall effectiveness: drug combination vs. vehicle control (p ≤ 0.01), SB-743921 (p ≤ 0.01) and VIC-1911 (p ≤ 0.05). Kaplan-Meier curves demonstrated superior overall survival with the combination compared to vehicle or monotherapy arms (p ≤ 0.0001).

Superior efficacy of a combined epigenetic therapy against human mantle cell lymphoma cells.

PURPOSE: A deregulated epigenome contributes to the transformed phenotype of mantle cell lymphoma (MCL). This involves activity of the polycomb repressive complex (PRC) 2, containing three core proteins, EZH2, SUZ12, and EED, in which the SET domain of EZH2 mediates the histone methyltransferase activity. We determined the effects of 3-deazaneplanocin A (DZNep), an S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase inhibitor, and/or pan-histone deacetylase inhibitor panobinostat (PS) on cultured and primary MCL cells. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Following treatment with DZNep and/or PS, apoptosis and the levels and activity of EZH2 and PRC2 proteins in cultured and primary MCL cells were determined. RESULTS: Treatment with DZNep depleted EZH2, SUZ12, and 3MeK27H3 in the cultured human MCL cells. DZNep also increased expression of p21, p27, and FBXO32, whereas it depleted Cyclin D1 and Cyclin E1 levels in MCL cells. In addition, DZNep treatment induced cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in cultured and primary MCL cells. Furthermore, as compared with treatment with each agent alone, cotreatment with DZNep and PS caused greater depletion of EZH2, SUZ12, 3MeK27H3, and Cyclin D1 levels, whereas it induced greater expression of FBXO32, p16, p21, and p27. Combined treatment with DZNep and PS synergistically induced apoptosis of cultured and primary MCL cells while relatively sparing normal CD34 + cells. Cotreatment with DZNep and PS also caused significantly greater inhibition of tumor growth of JeKo-1 xenografts in NOD/SCID mice. CONCLUSIONS: These preclinical in vitro and in vivo findings show that cotreatment with DZNep and PS is an active combined epigenetic therapy worthy of further in vivo testing against MCL.

Co-treatment with vorinostat synergistically enhances activity of Aurora kinase inhibitor against human breast cancer cells.

Aurora kinases (AKs) regulate multiple components of mitotic cell division in eukaryotic cells. Aurora A is frequently amplified or overexpressed in breast cancer cells leading to aberrant chromosome segregation, genomic instability, and activation of oncogenic pathways. In the present studies, we determined the effects of treatment with the pan-AK inhibitor MK-0457 and/or the pan-histone deacetylase inhibitor vorinostat against human breast cancer cells that were either ER-, PR-, and HER2- (MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-231) or exhibited Aurora A amplification (BT-474 and MDA-MB-231 cells). Treatment with MK-0457 depleted p-AKs levels and their activity, as well as induced G2/M accumulation, DNA endoreduplication, multipolar mitotic spindles, and apoptosis of the breast cancer cells. Similar apoptotic effects were observed with treatment with the Aurora A-specific inhibitor, MLN8237. Treatment with vorinostat induced hsp90 acetylation and inhibited its chaperone association with AKs, leading to depletion of AKs and Survivin. Exposure of the siRNA to AK A also induced apoptosis, which was augmented by co-treatment with MK-0457 and vorinostat. Co-treatment with vorinostat enhanced MK-0457-mediated inhibition of the activities of Aurora A and Aurora B, leading to synergistic in vitro activity against human breast cancer cells. Co-treatment with MK-0457 and vorinostat also caused greater tumor growth inhibition and superior survival of mice bearing MDA-MB-231 xenografts. These pre-clinical findings indicate that combined treatment with a pan-AK inhibitor or an Aurora A-specific inhibitor and vorinostat represents a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of Aurora A-amplified and/or triple negative breast cancers.

Combination of pan-histone deacetylase inhibitor and autophagy inhibitor exerts superior efficacy against triple-negative human breast cancer cells.

Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors (HDI) induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and apoptosis, while promoting autophagy, which promotes cancer cell survival when apoptosis is compromised. Here, we determined the in vitro and in vivo activity of the combination of the pan-HDI panobinostat and the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine against human estrogen/progesterone receptor and HER2 (triple)-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. Treatment of MB-231 and SUM159PT cells with panobinostat disrupted the hsp90/histone deacetylase 6/HSF1/p97 complex, resulting in the upregulation of hsp. This was accompanied by the induction of enhanced autophagic flux as evidenced by increased expression of LC3B-II and the degradation of the autophagic substrate p62. Treatment with panobinostat also induced the accumulation and colocalization of p62 with LC3B-II in cytosolic foci as evidenced by immunofluorescent confocal microscopy. Inhibition of panobinostat-induced autophagic flux by chloroquine markedly induced the accumulation of polyubiquitylated proteins and p62, caused synergistic cell death of MB-231 and SUM159PT cells, and inhibited mammosphere formation in MB-231 cells, compared with treatment with each agent alone. Finally, in mouse mammary fat pad xenografts of MB-231 cells, a tumor size-dependent induction of heat shock response, ER stress and autophagy were observed. Cotreatment with panobinostat and chloroquine resulted in reduced tumor burden and increased the survival of MB-231 breast cancer xenografts. Collectively, our findings show that cotreatment with an autophagy inhibitor and pan-HDI, for example, chloroquine and panobinostat results in accumulation of toxic polyubiquitylated proteins, exerts superior inhibitory effects on TNBC cell growth, and increases the survival of TNBC xenografts.

Alterations in tumor necrosis factor signaling pathways are associated with cytotoxicity and resistance to taxanes: a study in isogenic resistant tumor cells.

INTRODUCTION: The taxanes paclitaxel and docetaxel are widely used in the treatment of breast, ovarian, and other cancers. Although their cytotoxicity has been attributed to cell-cycle arrest through stabilization of microtubules, the mechanisms by which tumor cells die remains unclear. Paclitaxel has been shown to induce soluble tumor necrosis factor alpha (sTNF-α) production in macrophages, but the involvement of TNF production in taxane cytotoxicity or resistance in tumor cells has not been established. Our study aimed to correlate alterations in the TNF pathway with taxane cytotoxicity and the acquisition of taxane resistance. METHODS: MCF-7 cells or isogenic drug-resistant variants (developed by selection for surviving cells in increasing concentrations of paclitaxel or docetaxel) were assessed for sTNF-α production in the absence or presence of taxanes by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and for sensitivity to docetaxel or sTNF-α by using a clonogenic assay (in the absence or presence of TNFR1 or TNFR2 neutralizing antibodies). Nuclear factor (NF)-κB activity was also measured with ELISA, whereas gene-expression changes associated with docetaxel resistance in MCF-7 and A2780 cells were determined with microarray analysis and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RTqPCR). RESULTS: MCF-7 and A2780 cells increased production of sTNF-α in the presence of taxanes, whereas docetaxel-resistant variants of MCF-7 produced high levels of sTNF-α, although only within a particular drug-concentration threshold (between 3 and 45 nM). Increased production of sTNF-α was NF-κB dependent and correlated with decreased sensitivity to sTNF-α, decreased levels of TNFR1, and increased survival through TNFR2 and NF-κB activation. The NF-κB inhibitor SN-50 reestablished sensitivity to docetaxel in docetaxel-resistant MCF-7 cells. Gene-expression analysis of wild-type and docetaxel-resistant MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, and A2780 cells identified changes in the expression of TNF-α-related genes consistent with reduced TNF-induced cytotoxicity and activation of NF-κB survival pathways. CONCLUSIONS: We report for the first time that taxanes can promote dose-dependent sTNF-α production in tumor cells at clinically relevant concentrations, which can contribute to their cytotoxicity. Defects in the TNF cytotoxicity pathway or activation of TNF-dependent NF-κB survival genes may, in contrast, contribute to taxane resistance in tumor cells. These findings may be of strong clinical significance.

Development and characterization of a novel C-terminal inhibitor of Hsp90 in androgen dependent and independent prostate cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: The molecular chaperone, heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) has been shown to be overexpressed in a number of cancers, including prostate cancer, making it an important target for drug discovery. Unfortunately, results with N-terminal inhibitors from initial clinical trials have been disappointing, as toxicity and resistance resulting from induction of the heat shock response (HSR) has led to both scheduling and administration concerns. Therefore, Hsp90 inhibitors that do not induce the heat shock response represent a promising new direction for the treatment of prostate cancer. Herein, the development of a C-terminal Hsp90 inhibitor, KU174, is described, which demonstrates anti-cancer activity in prostate cancer cells in the absence of a HSR and describe a novel approach to characterize Hsp90 inhibition in cancer cells. METHODS: PC3-MM2 and LNCaP-LN3 cells were used in both direct and indirect in vitro Hsp90 inhibition assays (DARTS, Surface Plasmon Resonance, co-immunoprecipitation, luciferase, Western blot, anti-proliferative, cytotoxicity and size exclusion chromatography) to characterize the effects of KU174 in prostate cancer cells. Pilot in vivo efficacy studies were also conducted with KU174 in PC3-MM2 xenograft studies. RESULTS: KU174 exhibits robust anti-proliferative and cytotoxic activity along with client protein degradation and disruption of Hsp90 native complexes without induction of a HSR. Furthermore, KU174 demonstrates direct binding to the Hsp90 protein and Hsp90 complexes in cancer cells. In addition, in pilot in-vivo proof-of-concept studies KU174 demonstrates efficacy at 75 mg/kg in a PC3-MM2 rat tumor model. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, these findings suggest C-terminal Hsp90 inhibitors have potential as therapeutic agents for the treatment of prostate cancer.

Heat shock protein 90 inhibitor is synergistic with JAK2 inhibitor and overcomes resistance to JAK2-TKI in human myeloproliferative neoplasm cells.

PURPOSE: We determined the activity of hsp90 inhibitor, and/or Janus-activated kinase 2 (JAK2) tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), against JAK2-V617F-expressing cultured mouse (Ba/F3-JAK2-V617F) and human (HEL92.1.7 and UKE-1) or primary human CD34(+) myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) cells. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Following exposure to the hsp90 inhibitor AUY922 and/or JAK2-TKI TG101209, the levels of JAK2-V617F, its downstream signaling proteins, as well as apoptosis were determined. RESULTS: Treatment with AUY922 induced proteasomal degradation and depletion of JAK2-V617F as well as attenuated the signaling proteins downstream of JAK2-V617F, that is, phospho (p)-STAT5, p-AKT, and p-ERK1/2. AUY922 treatment also induced apoptosis of HEL92.1.7, UKE-1, and Ba/F3-hJAK2-V617F cells. Combined treatment with AUY922 and TG101209 caused greater depletion of the signaling proteins than either agent alone and synergistically induced apoptosis of HEL92.1.7 and UKE-1 cells. Cotreatment with AUY922 and TG101209 also induced significantly more apoptosis of human CD34(+) MPN than normal hematopoietic progenitor cells. As compared with the sensitive controls, JAK2-TKI-resistant HEL/TGR and UKE-1/TGR cells exhibited significantly higher IC(50) values for JAK2-TKI (P < 0.001), which was associated with higher expression of p-JAK2, p-STAT5, p-AKT, and Bcl-xL, but reduced levels of BIM. Unlike the sensitive controls, HEL/TGR and UKE/TGR cells were collaterally sensitive to the hsp90 inhibitors AUY922 and 17-AAG, accompanied by marked reduction in p-JAK2, p-STAT5, p-AKT, and Bcl-xL, with concomitant induction of BIM. CONCLUSIONS: Findings presented here show that cotreatment with hsp90 inhibitor and JAK2-TKI exerts synergistic activity against cultured and primary MPN cells. In addition, treatment with hsp90 inhibitor may overcome resistance to JAK2-TKI in human MPN cells.

Loss of transforming growth factor-beta signaling in mammary fibroblasts enhances CCL2 secretion to promote mammary tumor progression through macrophage-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

Whereas the accumulation of fibroblasts and macrophages in breast cancer is a well-documented phenomenon and correlates with metastatic disease, the functional contributions of these stromal cells on breast cancer progression still remain largely unclear. Previous studies have uncovered a potentially important role for CCL2 inflammatory chemokine signaling in regulating metastatic disease through a macrophage-dependent mechanism. In these studies, we demonstrate a significant regulatory mechanism for CCL2 expression in fibroblasts in mediating mammary tumor progression and characterize multiple functions for CCL2 in regulating stromal-epithelial interactions. Targeted ablation of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) type 2 receptor in fibroblasts (Tgfbr2(FspKO)) results in a high level of secretion of CCL2, and cografts of Tgfbr2(FspKO) fibroblasts with 4T1 mammary carcinoma cells enhanced tumor progression associated with recruitment of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Antibody neutralization of CCL2 in tumor-bearing mice inhibits primary tumor growth and liver metastases as evidenced by reduced cell proliferation, survival, and TAM recruitment. Both high and low stable expressions of small interfering RNA to CCL2 in Tgfbr2(FspKO) fibroblasts significantly reduce liver metastases without significantly affecting primary tumor growth, cell proliferation, or TAM recruitment. High but not low knockdown of CCL2 enhances tumor cell apoptosis. These data indicate that CCL2 enhances primary tumor growth, survival, and metastases in a dose-dependent manner, through TAM-dependent and -independent mechanisms, with important implications on the potential effects of targeting CCL2 chemokine signaling in the metastatic disease.

Induction of 1C aldoketoreductases and other drug dose-dependent genes upon acquisition of anthracycline resistance.

OBJECTIVES: Recent studies suggest that tumor cells overexpressing aldoketoreductases (AKRs) exhibit increased resistance to DNA damaging agents such as anthracyclines. AKRs may induce resistance to the anthracycline doxorubicin by catalyzing its conversion to the less toxic 13-hydroxy metabolite doxorubicinol. However, it has not been established whether during selection for anthracycline resistance, AKR overexpression in tumor cells can be correlated with the onset or magnitude of drug resistance and with appreciable conversion of anthracyclines to 13-hydroxy metabolites. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Through microarray and quantitative polymerase chain reaction studies involving rigid selection criteria and both correlative discriminate statistics and time-course models, we have identified several genes whose expression can be correlated with the onset and/or magnitude of anthracycline resistance, including AKR1C2 and AKR1C3. Also associated with the onset or magnitude of anthracycline resistance were genes involved in drug transport (ABCB1, ABCC1), cell signaling and transcription (RDC1, CXCR4), cell proliferation or apoptosis (BMP7, CAV1), protection from reactive oxygen species (AKR1C2, AKR1C3, FTL, FTH, TXNRD1, MT2A), and structural or immune system proteins (IFI30, STMN1). As expected, doxorubicin-resistant and epirubicin-resistant cells exhibited higher levels of doxorubicinol than wild-type cells, although at insufficient levels to account for significant drug resistance. Nevertheless, an inhibitor of Akr1c2 (5beta-cholanic acid) almost completely restored sensitivity to doxorubicin in ABCB1-deficient doxorubicin-resistant cells, while having no effect on ABCB1-expressing epirubicin-resistant cells. CONCLUSION: Taken together, we show for the first time that a variety of genes (particularly redox genes such as AKR1C2 and AKR1C3) can be temporally and causally correlated with the acquisition of anthracycline resistance in breast tumor cells.

Chemokine signaling in cancer: Implications on the tumor microenvironment and therapeutic targeting.

Chemokines are soluble factors shown to play important roles in regulating immune cell recruitment during inflammatory responses and defense against foreign pathogens. De-regulated expression and activity of several chemokine signaling pathways have been implicated in cancer progression, including: CCL2, CCL5, CXCL1 and CXCL12. While studies in the past have focused the role of these chemokine signaling pathways in regulating immune responses, emerging studies show that these molecules regulate diverse cellular processes including angiogenesis, and regulation of epithelial cell growth and survival. New evidence indicates that chemokines are critical for cancer progression and indicate complex and diverse functions in the tumor microenvironment. This review will focus on the contributions of chemokine signaling in regulating cancer microvironment and discuss the utility of targeting or delivering chemokines in cancer therapeutics.

Role of drug transporters and drug accumulation in the temporal acquisition of drug resistance.

BACKGROUND: Anthracyclines and taxanes are commonly used in the treatment of breast cancer. However, tumor resistance to these drugs often develops, possibly due to overexpression of drug transporters. It remains unclear whether drug resistance in vitro occurs at clinically relevant doses of chemotherapy drugs and whether both the onset and magnitude of drug resistance can be temporally and causally correlated with the enhanced expression and activity of specific drug transporters. To address these issues, MCF-7 cells were selected for survival in increasing concentrations of doxorubicin (MCF-7DOX-2), epirubicin (MCF-7EPI), paclitaxel (MCF-7TAX-2), or docetaxel (MCF-7TXT). During selection cells were assessed for drug sensitivity, drug uptake, and the expression of various drug transporters. RESULTS: In all cases, resistance was only achieved when selection reached a specific threshold dose, which was well within the clinical range. A reduction in drug uptake was temporally correlated with the acquisition of drug resistance for all cell lines, but further increases in drug resistance at doses above threshold were unrelated to changes in cellular drug uptake. Elevated expression of one or more drug transporters was seen at or above the threshold dose, but the identity, number, and temporal pattern of drug transporter induction varied with the drug used as selection agent. The pan drug transporter inhibitor cyclosporin A was able to partially or completely restore drug accumulation in the drug-resistant cell lines, but had only partial to no effect on drug sensitivity. The inability of cyclosporin A to restore drug sensitivity suggests the presence of additional mechanisms of drug resistance. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that drug resistance is achieved in breast tumour cells only upon exposure to concentrations of drug at or above a specific selection dose. While changes in drug accumulation and the expression of drug transporters does occur at the threshold dose, the magnitude of resistance cannot be attributed solely to changes in drug accumulation or the activity of drug transporters. The identities of these additional drug-transporter-independent mechanisms are discussed, including their likely clinical relevance.

Hypermethylation of the ABCB1 downstream gene promoter accompanies ABCB1 gene amplification and increased expression in docetaxel-resistant MCF-7 breast tumor cells.

Drug transporters have been implicated in resistance of solid and non-solid tumors to a variety of chemotherapeutic agents. Higher expression of the ABCB1 drug transporter is often observed in drug-resistant tumor cells, although the precise mechanism remains unclear. During selection of MCF-7 cells for survival in increasing concentrations of docetaxel (MCF-7TXT cells), we observed in this study a temporal correlation between the acquisition of docetaxel resistance at selection dose 9 and the increased expression of ABCB1. Both the magnitude of docetaxel resistance and the level of ABCB1 expression then rose as the selection dose was further elevated. We also observed through bisulfite sequencing experiments that the ABCB1 downstream promoter became increasingly methylated following the acquisition of drug resistance (selection doses 10-12). Transcription was solely attributed to the upstream ABCB1 promoter within MCF-7TXT cells at the highest selection dose suggesting that hypermethylation caused a shift in promoter usage. The hypermethylation was also accompanied by regional amplification of chromosome 7 containing the ABCB1 gene and its neighbor ABCB4 but not DBF-4. The amplification of the ABCB1 gene correlated positively both with the hypermethylation of the ABCB1 downstream promoter (r=0.90) and the increased expression of ABCB1 (r=0.78). Moreover demethylation of the ABCB1 downstream promoter induced by 5-aza-2A'deoxycytidine treatment decreased the expression of ABCB1 mRNA in MCF-7TXT cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that the increased expression of ABCB1 upon acquisition of docetaxel resistance in breast tumor cells can be multifactorial, involving both epigenetic changes in promoter usage and regional chromosome amplification.

Changes in expression of cell wall turnover genes accompany inhibition of chromosome segregation by bovine protein kinase C alpha expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Expression of bovine PKCalpha in Saccharomyces cerevisiae results in growth inhibition, which is strongly augmented upon addition of phorbol esters. To investigate the nature of this PKC-induced inhibition of cell growth, wildtype and bovine PKCalpha-expressing yeast cells were examined by flow cytometry and by fluorescence microscopy after staining with propidium iodide. Upon expression and activation of the mammalian PKC isoform, cells accumulated in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle and exhibited impaired chromsome segregation. In some instances, PKC expression and activation was accompanied by a defect in septum formation between mother and daughter cells. cDNA microarray analysis revealed 4 genes (CTS1, DSE1, DSE2, and SVS1) that changed expression in both a PKCalpha- and phorbol ester-dependent manner. These findings were confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR. Three of these genes are involved in cell wall turnover and are regulated by a single transcription factor (Ace 2) that localizes to daughter cell nuclei after cytokinesis. Taken together, these observations suggest that expression and activation of bovine PKCalpha in yeast cells repress growth by inducing an accumulation of cells in G2/M, likely through an impairment of chromosome segregation, cytokinesis, and septum formation. Moreover, when these observations are taken in the context of previously published observations with various yeast null mutants, we propose that bovine PKCalpha may directly or indirectly activate a subunit of the PP2A phosphatase complex (cdc55), which is a component of the mitotic spindle checkpoint.

Gene expression profiles as biomarkers for the prediction of chemotherapy drug response in human tumour cells.

Genome profiling approaches such as cDNA microarray analysis and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction are playing ever-increasing roles in the classification of human cancers and in the discovery of biomarkers for the prediction of prognosis in cancer patients. Increasing research efforts are also being directed at identifying set of genes whose expression can be correlated with response to specific drugs or drug combinations. Such genes hold the prospect of tailoring chemotherapy regimens to the individual patient, based on tumour or host gene expression profiles. This review outlines recent advances and challenges in using genome profiling for the identification of tumour or host genes whose expression correlates with response to chemotherapy drugs both in vitro and in clinical studies. Genetic predictors of response to a variety of anticancer agents are discussed, including the anthracyclines, taxanes, topoisomerase I and II inhibitors, nucleoside analogs, alkylating agents, and vinca alkaloids.

cDNA microarray analysis of isogenic paclitaxel- and doxorubicin-resistant breast tumor cell lines reveals distinct drug-specific genetic signatures of resistance.

cDNA microarray analysis is a highly useful tool for the classification of tumors and for prediction of patient prognosis to specific cancers based on this classification. However, to date, there is little evidence that microarray approaches can be used to reliably predict patient response to specific chemotherapy drugs or regimens. This is likely due to an inability to differentiate between genes affecting patient prognosis and genes that play a role in response to specific drugs. Thus, it would be highly useful to identify genes whose expression correlates with tumor cell sensitivity to specific chemotherapy agents in a drug-specific manner. Using cDNA microarray analysis of wildtype MCF-7 breast tumor cells and isogenic paclitaxel-resistant (MCF-7(TAX)) or doxorubicin-resistant (MCF-7(DOX)) derivative cell lines, we have uncovered drug-specific changes in gene expression that accompany the establishment of paclitaxel or doxorubicin resistance. These changes in gene expression were confirmed by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunoblotting experiments, with a confirmation rate of approximately 91-95%. The genes identified may prove highly useful for prediction of response to paclitaxel or doxorubicin in patients with breast cancer. To our knowledge this is the first report of drug-specific genetic signatures of resistance to paclitaxel or doxorubicin, based on a comparison of gene expression between isogenic wildtype and drug-resistant tumor cell lines. Moreover, this study provides significant insight into the wide variety of mechanisms through which resistance to these agents may be acquired in breast cancer.

The optimization of quantitative reverse transcription PCR for verification of cDNA microarray data.

cDNA microarray analysis is highly useful for monitoring genome-wide changes in gene expression that occur in biological processes. Current standards require that microarray observations be verified by quantitative (Q)-PCR or other techniques. Few studies have optimized Q-PCR for verification of microarray findings. The current study assessed several variables affecting Q-PCR fidelity, including RNA extraction methods, mRNA enrichment, primers for reverse transcription, and cDNA amplification detection methods. Also assessed was the choice of reference gene on which other gene expression changes are based. The RNA for ribosomal protein S28 was found to be ideal for this purpose, with minimal variance in expression among isogenic drug-resistant cell lines. We also found that oligo (dT) primers were superior to random hexamers and that RNA extracted by the RNeasy method gave consistent S28 gene amplification without the need for mRNA enrichment, particularly when TaqMan probes were used. Nevertheless, sensitivity was sufficiently high with SYBR Green I that it was the preferred, least costly method for amplification product detection, even for low-abundance transcripts. Using the optimal method, 91-95% of the differences in gene expression identified between the cell lines by cDNA microarray analysis could be confirmed by Q-PCR, significantly superior to previously described methods.

Cross-resistance studies of isogenic drug-resistant breast tumor cell lines support recent clinical evidence suggesting that sensitivity to paclitaxel may be strongly compromised by prior doxorubicin exposure.

Less than half of breast cancer patients respond to second-line chemotherapy with paclitaxel after failing treatment with anthracyclines such as doxorubicin. A recent clinical trial by Paridaens et al. [J. Clin. Oncol. 18 : 724-733, 2000] examined whether patients may derive a better clinical benefit if paclitaxel was administered before doxorubicin. While overall survival was similar regardless of the order of drug administration, a >4-fold reduction in the response rate to paclitaxel was observed after late crossover from doxorubicin, compared to the response rate to doxorubicin after late crossover from paclitaxel. This may be related to differences in the ability of the drugs to induce cross-resistance to each other. To test this hypothesis, we examined whether isogenic breast tumor cells selected for resistance to doxorubicin exhibit greater cross-resistance to paclitaxel and other drugs than identical cells selected for resistance to paclitaxel. We found that cells selected for resistance to paclitaxel showed strong resistance (>/=40-fold) to paclitaxel and docetaxel, with little cross-resistance (4-fold) to doxorubicin. In contrast, cells selected for resistance to doxorubicin exhibited 50-fold resistance to doxorubicin and a dramatic 4700-fold and 14,600-fold cross-resistance to paclitaxel and docetaxel, respectively. Doxorubicin-resistant cells exhibited higher P-glycoprotein and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) levels than paclitaxel-resistant cells. In addition, procaspase-9 was strongly downregulated in doxorubicin-resistant cells but not in paclitaxel-resistant cells. These differences may account for the contrasting cross-resistance profiles observed for the two cell lines and may help to explain why treatment of breast cancer patients with paclitaxel appears to be compromized by prior doxorubicin exposure.

Potent killing of paclitaxel- and doxorubicin-resistant breast cancer cells by calphostin C accompanied by cytoplasmic vacuolization.

Drug resistance is a major impediment to the successful treatment of breast cancer using chemotherapy. The photoactivatable drug calphostin C has shown promise in killing select drug-resistant tumor cells lines in vitro. To assess the effectiveness of this agent in killing doxorubicin- or paclitaxel-resistant breast tumor cells and to explore its mode of action, MCF-7 cells were exposed to increasing concentrations of either doxorubicin or paclitaxel until maximum resistance was obtained. This resulted in the creation of isogenic drug-resistant MCF-7TAX and MCF-7DOX cell lines, which were approximately 50- and 65-fold resistant to paclitaxel and doxorubicin, respectively. Interestingly, calphostin C was able to kill MCF-7TAX cells as efficiently as wildtype MCF-7 cells (IC50s were 9.2 and 13.2 nM, respectively), while MCF-7DOX cells required a 5-fold higher concentration of calphostin C to achieve the same killing (IC50 = 64.2 nM). Consistent with their known mechanisms of action, paclitaxel killed tumor cells by inducing mitotic arrest and cell multinucleation, while doxorubicin induced plasma membrane blebbing and decreased nuclear staining with propidium iodide. In contrast, cytoplasmic vacuolization accompanied cell killing by calphostin C in these cell lines, without the induction of caspase-8 or PARP cleavage or the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. Calphostin C had little effect on the uptake of either paclitaxel or doxorubicin by the cells. Taken together, the above data suggests that calphostin C is able to potently kill drug-resistant breast tumor cells through a mechanism that may involve the induction of cytoplasmic vacuolization, without activation of typical apoptotic pathways. Consequently, calphostin C may prove useful clinically to combat tumor growth in breast cancer patients whose tumors have become unresponsive to anthracyclines or taxanes, particularly in association with photodynamic therapy.