ATLANTIC-PRIMATES: a dataset of communities and occurrences of primates in the Atlantic Forests of South America.

Primates play an important role in ecosystem functioning and offer critical insights into human evolution, biology, behavior, and emerging infectious diseases. There are 26 primate species in the Atlantic Forests of South America, 19 of them endemic. We compiled a dataset of 5,472 georeferenced locations of 26 native and 1 introduced primate species, as hybrids in the genera Callithrix and Alouatta. The dataset includes 700 primate communities, 8,121 single species occurrences and 714 estimates of primate population sizes, covering most natural forest types of the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina and some other biomes. On average, primate communities of the Atlantic Forest harbor 2 ± 1 species (range = 1-6). However, about 40% of primate communities contain only one species. Alouatta guariba (N = 2,188 records) and Sapajus nigritus (N = 1,127) were the species with the most records. Callicebus barbarabrownae (N = 35), Leontopithecus caissara (N = 38), and Sapajus libidinosus (N = 41) were the species with the least records. Recorded primate densities varied from 0.004 individuals/km2 (Alouatta guariba at Fragmento do Bugre, Paraná, Brazil) to 400 individuals/km2 (Alouatta caraya in Santiago, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil). Our dataset reflects disparity between the numerous primate census conducted in the Atlantic Forest, in contrast to the scarcity of estimates of population sizes and densities. With these data, researchers can develop different macroecological and regional level studies, focusing on communities, populations, species co-occurrence and distribution patterns. Moreover, the data can also be used to assess the consequences of fragmentation, defaunation, and disease outbreaks on different ecological processes, such as trophic cascades, species invasion or extinction, and community dynamics. There are no copyright restrictions. Please cite this Data Paper when the data are used in publications. We also request that researchers and teachers inform us of how they are using the data.

Yellow fever impact on brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) in Argentina: a metamodelling approach based on population viability analysis and epidemiological dynamics

In South America, yellow fever (YF) is an established infectious disease that has been identified outside of its traditional endemic areas, affecting human and nonhuman primate (NHP) populations. In the epidemics that occurred in Argentina between 2007-2009, several outbreaks affecting humans and howler monkeys (Alouatta spp) were reported, highlighting the importance of this disease in the context of conservation medicine and public health policies. Considering the lack of information about YF dynamics in New World NHP, our main goal was to apply modelling tools to better understand YF transmission dynamics among endangered brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) populations in northeastern Argentina. Two complementary modelling tools were used to evaluate brown howler population dynamics in the presence of the disease: Vortex, a stochastic demographic simulation model, and Outbreak, a stochastic disease epidemiology simulation. The baseline model of YF disease epidemiology predicted a very high probability of population decline over the next 100 years. We believe the modelling approach discussed here is a reasonable description of the disease and its effects on the howler monkey population and can be useful to support evidence-based decision-making to guide actions at a regional level.

Yellow fever impact on brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) in Argentina: a metamodelling approach based on population viability analysis and epidemiological dynamics.

In South America, yellow fever (YF) is an established infectious disease that has been identified outside of its traditional endemic areas, affecting human and nonhuman primate (NHP) populations. In the epidemics that occurred in Argentina between 2007-2009, several outbreaks affecting humans and howler monkeys (Alouatta spp) were reported, highlighting the importance of this disease in the context of conservation medicine and public health policies. Considering the lack of information about YF dynamics in New World NHP, our main goal was to apply modelling tools to better understand YF transmission dynamics among endangered brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) populations in northeastern Argentina. Two complementary modelling tools were used to evaluate brown howler population dynamics in the presence of the disease: Vortex, a stochastic demographic simulation model, and Outbreak, a stochastic disease epidemiology simulation. The baseline model of YF disease epidemiology predicted a very high probability of population decline over the next 100 years. We believe the modelling approach discussed here is a reasonable description of the disease and its effects on the howler monkey population and can be useful to support evidence-based decision-making to guide actions at a regional level.

Impact of yellow fever outbreaks on two howler monkey species (Alouatta guariba clamitans and A. caraya) in Misiones, Argentina.

Two yellow fever outbreaks (YFOs) occurred in northeastern Argentina between November 2007 and October 2008, seriously affecting populations of two howler monkey species: the brown howler Alouatta guariba clamitans and the black howler Alouatta caraya. Both howlers live syntopically in El Piñalito Provincial Park, Misiones, where four groups (36 individuals) were studied since January 2005. The first dead howlers were found on January 20, 2008, in El Piñalito. Systematic searches found 14 dead howlers within the area (12 from the study groups and two from neighboring groups), with only two young seen on January 25, 2008, and none found since up to December 2008. In October 2008, another YFO hit howler monkey populations from El Soberbio, Misiones. Overall, 59 howlers were found dead in Misiones from November 2007 to December 2008. Thanks to the alert of the howler's death in El Piñalito, a prompt human vaccination campaign started in the area. Wild howler monkey populations from both species are in a delicate situation in Misiones, especially the brown howler, an already endangered species in Argentina and endemic to the Atlantic Forest. If we add the recurrence of YFOs to the reduction of suitable habitat to small fragments, it could be only a matter of time until howler populations disappear from the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest in Misiones.

Are howler monkey species ecologically equivalent? Trophic niche overlap in syntopic Alouatta guariba clamitans and Alouatta caraya.

According to the principle of competitive exclusion, niche differentiation allows the stable coexistence of closely related species. We analyzed dietary profile and diversity, and dietary overlap between syntopic brown howlers (BR; Alouatta guariba clamitans) and black and gold howlers (BLG; A. caraya) in the Atlantic Forest of NE Argentina, with the objective of evaluating the degree of trophic niche overlap and potential interspecific competition for food. During 12 months, we collected data on feeding behavior of two groups of each howler species using the scan sampling method, together with data on food availability. Both at the group- and species-level, we analyzed feeding behavior in terms of monthly percentages of time spent feeding on each food type and specific food item, dietary diversity (Shannon index H'), and we estimated dietary overlap using the percentage index and the Morisita-Horn index (C(H)). Across months, both howlers showed species-specific preferences for certain food items, and BLG had a more diverse diet (mean+/-SE, H'=2.77+/-0.08) than BR (H'=2.39+/-0.09). However, diets of both species overlapped extensively (percentage index=45.64+/-2.97%; C(H)=0.6+/-0.05) and diets of conspecific groups did not overlap more than diets of groups of different species. Given their high degree of trophic overlap, syntopic BR and BLG meet one of the conditions necessary for interspecific food competition to occur. Although at present we lack direct evidence for interspecific competition in these howler species, we conclude that high levels of niche overlap may have an important role in maintaining the essentially parapatric distribution of howler species throughout the Neotropics.

Infant hybrids in a newly formed mixed-species group of howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans and Alouatta caraya) in northeastern Argentina.

Natural hybridisation between species has been reported in several primate taxa. In the Neotropics, there is increasing evidence of this phenomenon in howler monkeys (genus Alouatta) in contact zones between species. We describe the first known case of formation of a mixed-species group, and two cases of putative infant hybrids between the brown howler (Alouatta guariba clamitans) and the black howler (A. caraya) in Misiones, Argentina. For 2 years, we followed a group consisting of one adult male and two adult female brown howlers and one adult female black howler. The adult female black howler was observed to copulate twice with brown howler males, and never with black howler males. In December 2006, this female was carrying an infant with a hybrid morphotype. This infant died at approximately 1.5 months of age. In November 2007, the same female had another putative hybrid newborn. This infant male died together with all members of his group during a yellow fever outbreak in early 2008. The lower frequency of mixed-species groups and hybrids at our site compared with other contact zones reported in the literature, suggests that the incidence of natural hybridisation between howler species differs depending on local factors such as population demography and landscape fragmentation.