Preparation, characterization and immune activity of Codonopsis pilosula polysaccharide loaded in chitosan-graphene oxide.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of chitosan graphene oxide Codonopsis pilosula polysaccharide (CS-GO-CPP) complex on the immune function of macrophage cells (RAW264.7). In this experiment, chitosan (CS) was combined with graphene oxide (GO) by electrostatic action to prepare CS-GO nanocomposites, and it was used as a carrier to load Codonopsis pilosula polysaccharide (CPP) onto CS-GO to prepare CS-GO-CPP. Using infrared spectroscopy detection, zeta potential detection, and thermogravimetric analysis, we conduct a preliminary analysis of the structure of CS-GO-CPP. Macrophages were employed to evaluate CS-GO-CPP immunomodulatory activity and the possible mechanism responsible for the activation of macrophages in vitro. The results showed that compared with CPP, CS-GO-CPP did not change the basic structure of polysaccharide, and its thermal stability was improved. 0.78- 12.5 µg·mL-1 of CS-GO-CPP could significantly promote the phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells (P < 0.05) and significantly increase NO content, IL-4 and IFN-γ secretion, the expression of CD40, CD86, and F4/80 (P < 0.05). CS-GO-CPP might activate the NF-κB signaling pathway and induce the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65. In conclusion, CS-GO-CPP has a capacity to activate RAW264.7 cells for an improvement of immunomodulation activities, which might be through NF-κB signaling pathway.

The Politics of Breeding: Rabies Prevention and the Shaping of Human-Dog Relations in Modern Japan.

Rabies prevention has become a vital part of public health administration owing to the high incidence of rabies in Japan in modern times. The rabies prevention system in Japan, which was gradually established based on the rabies knowledge and prevention policies from Europe and the United States, was centered on livestock dog control, wild dog culling, and vaccination. This epidemic prevention system was based on two premises. First, though rabies is a zoonotic infectious disease, the focus of epidemic prevention administration was to protect humans, not dogs. Second, this system attempted to eliminate the rabies hazard at its source by reducing the number of all dogs-livestock dogs included. Under this epidemic prevention mechanism, the survival space of dogs as an object of public health administration was significantly eroded. In contrast, during wartime, the Japanese Empire encouraged people to donate their dogs to the military so their fur could be used to make military coats, and in the name of existing rabies prevention programs, extended the target of culling from wild dogs only to all non-military dogs. This administrative model of epidemic prevention, which attempted to hide the violence and arbitrariness of dog killing by creating artificial distinctions among dogs, is a metaphor for the power training mechanism in modern society.

Spiky titanium dioxide nanoparticles-loaded Plantaginis Semen polysaccharide as an adjuvant to enhance immune responses.

The purpose of this study was to prepare spiky titanium dioxide nanoparticles-loaded Plantaginis Semen polysaccharide (SN-TiO2-PSP), and the structural characterization and immune response of infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) vaccine in Hetian chickens were investigated. The structural characterization of SN-TiO2-PSP was analyzed by FT-IR, TEM, and TGA analysis. And the immune organs indexes, lymphocytes proliferation, specific antibody levels, and ratios of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes were studied. Structural characterization results showed that SN-TiO2-PSP has a typical polysaccharide absorption peak and good stability. The SN-TiO2-PSP's shape was similar to sea urchin, and its zeta potential and particle size were 27.56 mV and 976.11 nm, respectively. In vivo results showed that SN-TiO2-PSP could enhance the proliferation of peripheral lymphocytes, specific antibody levels, CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes ratios, IL-4 and INF-γ levels in Hetian chickens vaccinated with ILT vaccine on D7, D14, D21, and D28. In addition, SN-TiO2-PSP not only enhanced the indexes of immune organs but also promoted the development of immune organs. Therefore, SN-TiO2-PSP has immune adjuvant activity and may become a new potential immune adjuvant.

Anticoccidial Effect of Herbal Powder "Shi Ying Zi" in Chickens Infected with Eimeria tenella.

Coccidiosis is one of the most economically important diseases affecting the poultry industry. Currently, anticoccidial drugs used in veterinary clinics show many deficiencies, and new control measures are urgently needed. This study presents an anticoccidial herbal powder "Shi Yin Zi", which consists of Cnidium monnieri (L.) Cuss, Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz., and sodium chloride. In chickens infected with Eimeria tenella, supplementation with "Shi Yin Zi" powder for 3 d prior to infection or treatment with "Shi Yin Zi" powder after infection could improve the survival rate and relative growth rate and alleviate the pathological changes in the cecum, liver, and kidney. "Shi Yin Zi" powder could recover the levels of alanine aminotransferase, creatinine, albumin, and triglycerides in serum. The hemorrhage occurrence and total number of oocysts in feces were reduced. The anti-coccidial indexes reached 165 for the prophylactic effect and 144 for the therapeutic effect. The anti-coccidial effects were equal to positive controls (monensin and sulfamlopyrazine). These results suggest that "Shi Ying Zi" powder possesses a potent anticoccidial effect and exhibits the potential to control E. tenella infection.

Anticoccidial effect of Fructus Meliae toosendan extract against Eimeria tenella.

CONTEXT: Fructus Meliae toosendan extracts (FMTE) have a good therapeutic effect on coccidiosis, but there is no relevant research on its prophylactic effect on coccidiosis. OBJECTIVE: This study comprehensively evaluates the anticoccidial effect of FMTE. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In vitro, the unsporulated oocysts were treated with serial dilutions of FMTE and incubated for 7 d, and the sporulated oocysts were counted for calculating the median lethal concentration (LC50) of FMTE. In vivo, 180 10-day-old broiler chickens free of coccidiosis were weighted and randomly distributed into six groups: normal group, untreated group, 4 protective groups (positive group and three FMTE groups). From day 10 to day 21, chickens in the three FMTE groups were pre-treated with FMTE at the dosage of 2.5, 5 and 10 g/kg/d, respectively, and chickens in the positive group were pre-treated with qiuliling (10 g/kg/d). On day 14, chickens in all groups except the normal group were orally infected with 1.5 × 104 sporulated oocysts. The clinical symptoms were observed from day 10 to day 21, the anticoccidial index (ACI), tissue lesions, and intestinal microflora were determined on day 21. RESULTS: FMTE showed anti-sporulation effect against E. tenella and the LC50 value was 245.83 µg/mL in vitro. In vivo, FMTE at the dosage of 10 g/kg/d was effective against E. tenella infection, and its ACI value was 162.56, which was higher than the value of positive drug qiuliling (128.81). Discussion and conclusions: FMTE have potent anticoccidial effects, and it presents an alternative anticoccidial agent for avian coccidiosis control.

"Medicine of the Grassroots": Korean Herbal Medicine Industry and Consumption during the Japanese Colonial Period.

There is no doubt that the colonial period was a critical time for the establishment and expansion of modern Western medicine in Korea. However, did this act as a catalyst for the overall decline of traditional Korean medicine? While previous studies mainly focus on research based on the concept of Uisaeng (traditional Korean medicine doctor) and the medical policies implemented by the Japanese Government-General of Korea, this paper begins with the Korean herbal medicine industry, and comprehensively investigates the distribution and consumption of Korean herbal medicines during the colonial period from three perspectives: the policies for Korean medicine merchants implemented by the Japanese Government-General of Korea, changes in the Korean herbal medicine industry, and consumption of Korean herbal medicines in the Korean society. The colonial authorities' intention was to foster the advancement of Western medicine and phase out traditional Korean medicine. However, they merely imposed limitations on Uisaengs' operations-this policy loophole objectively left a window for Korean medicine merchants. Moreover, against the backdrop of the growing popularity of Western medicine and restrictions on the development of traditional Korean medicine by colonial authorities, the Korean herbal medicine industry, as one of the few "national industries" dominated by and serving Koreans, showed its tenacious vitality during that time. Korean medicine merchants responded to market changes with ease. They built different drugstores, such as traditional herbal stores mainly selling traditional Korean medicines, hybrid drugstores that simultaneously dealt with the manufacture and sale of patent medicines, and ginseng drugstores that specialized in the ginseng business. This classification promoted the commercialization of traditional Korean herbal medicine. Another crucial condition for the vitality of the Korean herbal medicine industry is Koreans' preference for traditional Korean medicine. It is an indisputable fact that Western medicine gradually became popular and was recognized by the common man during the colonial period; nonetheless, Eastern medicine and Western medicine were not playing a zero-sum game. Through comprehensive macro and micro analysis, this paper demonstrates that, during the colonial period, when old and new ideas interacted, most Koreans, including upper-class elites and intellectuals who were open-minded about emerging concepts and options and had ample opportunities to avail western medical treatment, preferred traditional Korean medicine. Using Korean herbal medicines for illnesses remained the primary choice, While Western medicine assumed the role of a supplement to traditional treatment. This paper argues that the first reason for this phenomenon is the inertia of tradition, and the second is that Western medicine was not necessarily more effective than Korean herbal medicine at that time. Specifically, it can be considered that, during the colonial period, the growing popularity of Western medicine failed to bring about a radical change in Koreans' regular medical interventions. Simultaneously, the Korean herbal medicine industry, one of the pillars offering medical support to the common man, adapted suitably while relying on the inertia of its own tradition. The industry's vitality and dynamism during the colonial period certainly underscore the need to amend the one-sided narrative of medical modernization vis-à-vis Western medicine.

A Study on the Korean Medicine Education and the Changes in the Traditional Korean Medicine during the Japanese Colonial Era: Focused on the Korean Medicine Training Schools.

The modern education institutes play an important role in fostering professional talents, reproducing knowledge and studies, and forming the identities of certain academic fields and vocational communities. It is a matter of common knowledge that the absence of an official Korean medicine medical school during the Japanese colonial era was a severely disadvantageous factor in the aspects of academic progress, fostering follow-up personnel, and establishment of social capability. Therefore, the then Korean medicine circle put emphasis on inadequate official education institutes as the main factor behind oppression. Furthermore, as the measure to promote the continuance of Korean medicine, the circle regarded establishing civilian Korean medicine training schools as their long-cherished wish and strived to accomplish the mission even after liberation. This study looked into how the Korean medicine circle during the Japanese colonial era utilized civilian training schools to conduct the Korean medicine education conforming to modern medical school and examined how the operation of these training schools influenced the changes in the traditional Korean medicine. After the introduction of the Western medical science, the Korean medicine circle aimed to improve the quality of Korean medicine doctors by establishing modern Korean medicine medical schools. However, after the annexation of Korea and Japan, official Korean medicine medical schools were not established since policies were organized centered on the Western medical science. In this light, the Korean medicine circle strived to nurture the younger generation of Korean medicine by establishing and operating the civilian Korean medicine training schools after the annexation between Korea and Japan. The schools were limited in terms of scale and status but possessed the forms conforming to the modern medical schools in terms of education system. In other words, the civilian training schools not only adhered to the standard education of Korean medicine but also aimed to lay their foundation in the education system of the Western medical science by forming the separated curriculum including basic medical science, diagnosis, clinic, drug, and the practice of acupuncture and moxibustion. Furthermore, having contained the basic subjects of the Western medical science - physiology, anatomy, pathology, etc. - in the compulsory subjects shows perceiving the intellectual and systematic hegemony of the Western medical science and satisfying the demand of the colonial power. Such an education system was succeeded and solidified through the training sessions and the training schools operated by the local colonial governments after the 1930s. Korean medicine became different from the traditional Korean medicine through the establishment and the operation of such training schools.