An allolactose trapped at the lacZ ß-galactosidase active site with its galactosyl moiety in a (4)H3 conformation provides insights into the formation, conformation, and stabilization of the transition state.

When lactose was incubated with G794A-ß-galactosidase (a variant with a "closed" active site loop that binds transition state analogs well) an allolactose was trapped with its Gal moiety in a (4)H3 conformation, similar to the oxocarbenium ion-like conformation expected of the transition state. The numerous interactions formed between the (4)H3 structure and ß-galactosidase indicate that this structure is representative of the transition state. This conformation is also very similar to that of d-galactono-1,5-lactone, a good transition state analog. Evidence indicates that substrates take up the (4)H3 conformation during migration from the shallow to the deep mode. Steric forces utilizing His418 and other residues are important for positioning the O1 leaving group into a quasi-axial position. An electrostatic interaction between the O5 of the distorted Gal and Tyr503 as well as C-H-π bonds with Trp568 are also significant. Computational studies of the energy of sugar ring distortion show that the ß-galactosidase reaction itinerary is driven by energetic considerations in utilization of a (4)H3 transition state with a novel (4)C1-(4)H3-(4)C1 conformation itinerary. To our knowledge, this is the first X-ray crystallographic structural demonstration that the transition state of a natural substrate of a glycosidase has a (4)H3 conformation.

Elucidating factors important for monovalent cation selectivity in enzymes: E. coli ß-galactosidase as a model.

Many enzymes require a specific monovalent cation (M(+)), that is either Na(+) or K(+), for optimal activity. While high selectivity M(+) sites in transport proteins have been extensively studied, enzyme M(+) binding sites generally have lower selectivity and are less characterized. Here we study the M(+) binding site of the model enzyme E. coli ß-galactosidase, which is about 10 fold selective for Na(+) over K(+). Combining data from X-ray crystallography and computational models, we find the electrostatic environment predominates in defining the Na(+) selectivity. In this lower selectivity site rather subtle influences on the electrostatic environment become significant, including the induced polarization effects of the M(+) on the coordinating ligands and the effect of second coordination shell residues on the charge distribution of the primary ligands. This work expands the knowledge of ion selectivity in proteins to denote novel mechanisms important for the selectivity of M(+) sites in enzymes.

Structural explanation for allolactose (lac operon inducer) synthesis by lacZ ß-galactosidase and the evolutionary relationship between allolactose synthesis and the lac repressor.

ß-Galactosidase (lacZ) has bifunctional activity. It hydrolyzes lactose to galactose and glucose and catalyzes the intramolecular isomerization of lactose to allolactose, the lac operon inducer. ß-Galactosidase promotes the isomerization by means of an acceptor site that binds glucose after its cleavage from lactose and thus delays its exit from the site. However, because of its relatively low affinity for glucose, details of this site have remained elusive. We present structural data mapping the glucose site based on a substituted enzyme (G794A-ß-galactosidase) that traps allolactose. Various lines of evidence indicate that the glucose of the trapped allolactose is in the acceptor position. The evidence includes structures with Bis-Tris (2,2-bis(hydroxymethyl)-2,2',2″-nitrilotriethanol) and L-ribose in the site and kinetic binding studies with substituted ß-galactosidases. The site is composed of Asn-102, His-418, Lys-517, Ser-796, Glu-797, and Trp-999. Ser-796 and Glu-797 are part of a loop (residues 795-803) that closes over the active site. This loop appears essential for the bifunctional nature of the enzyme because it helps form the glucose binding site. In addition, because the loop is mobile, glucose binding is transient, allowing the release of some glucose. Bioinformatics studies showed that the residues important for interacting with glucose are only conserved in a subset of related enzymes. Thus, intramolecular isomerization is not a universal feature of ß-galactosidases. Genomic analyses indicated that lac repressors were co-selected only within the conserved subset. This shows that the glucose binding site of ß-galactosidase played an important role in lac operon evolution.

LacZ ß-galactosidase: structure and function of an enzyme of historical and molecular biological importance.

This review provides an overview of the structure, function, and catalytic mechanism of lacZ ß-galactosidase. The protein played a central role in Jacob and Monod's development of the operon model for the regulation of gene expression. Determination of the crystal structure made it possible to understand why deletion of certain residues toward the amino-terminus not only caused the full enzyme tetramer to dissociate into dimers but also abolished activity. It was also possible to rationalize α-complementation, in which addition to the inactive dimers of peptides containing the "missing" N-terminal residues restored catalytic activity. The enzyme is well known to signal its presence by hydrolyzing X-gal to produce a blue product. That this reaction takes place in crystals of the protein confirms that the X-ray structure represents an active conformation. Individual tetramers of ß-galactosidase have been measured to catalyze 38,500 ± 900 reactions per minute. Extensive kinetic, biochemical, mutagenic, and crystallographic analyses have made it possible to develop a presumed mechanism of action. Substrate initially binds near the top of the active site but then moves deeper for reaction. The first catalytic step (called galactosylation) is a nucleophilic displacement by Glu537 to form a covalent bond with galactose. This is initiated by proton donation by Glu461. The second displacement (degalactosylation) by water or an acceptor is initiated by proton abstraction by Glu461. Both of these displacements occur via planar oxocarbenium ion-like transition states. The acceptor reaction with glucose is important for the formation of allolactose, the natural inducer of the lac operon.

Substitution for Asn460 cripples ß-galactosidase (Escherichia coli) by increasing substrate affinity and decreasing transition state stability.

Substrate initially binds to ß-galactosidase (Escherichia coli) at a 'shallow' site. It then moves ∼3Å to a 'deep' site and the transition state forms. Asn460 interacts in both sites, forming a water bridge interaction with the O3 hydroxyl of the galactosyl moiety in the shallow site and a direct H-bond with the O2 hydroxyl of the transition state in the deep site. Structural and kinetic studies were done with ß-galactosidases with substitutions for Asn460. The substituted enzymes have enhanced substrate affinity in the shallow site indicating lower E·substrate complex energy levels. They have poor transition state stabilization in the deep site that is manifested by increased energy levels of the E·transition state complexes. These changes in stability result in increased activation energies and lower k(cat) values. Substrate affinity to N460D-ß-galactosidase was enhanced through greater binding enthalpy (stronger H-bonds through the bridging water) while better affinity to N460T-ß-galactosidase occurred because of greater binding entropy. The transition states are less stable with N460S- and N460T-ß-galactosidase because of the weakening or loss of the important bond to the O2 hydroxyl of the transition state. For N460D-ß-galactosidase, the transition state is less stable due to an increased entropy penalty.

Ser-796 of ß-galactosidase (Escherichia coli) plays a key role in maintaining a balance between the opened and closed conformations of the catalytically important active site loop.

A loop (residues 794-803) at the active site of ß-galactosidase (Escherichia coli) opens and closes during catalysis. The α and ß carbons of Ser-796 form a hydrophobic connection to Phe-601 when the loop is closed while a connection via two H-bonds with the Ser hydroxyl occurs with the loop open. ß-Galactosidases with substitutions for Ser-796 were investigated. Replacement by Ala strongly stabilizes the closed conformation because of greater hydrophobicity and loss of H-bonding ability while replacement with Thr stabilizes the open form through hydrophobic interactions with its methyl group. Upon substitution with Asp much of the defined loop structure is lost. The different open-closed equilibria cause differences in the stabilities of the enzyme·substrate and enzyme·transition state complexes and of the covalent intermediate that affect the activation thermodynamics. With Ala, large changes of both the galactosylation (k(2)) and degalactosylation (k(3)) rates occur. With Thr and Asp, the k(2) and k(3) were not changed as much but large ΔH(‡) and TΔS(‡) changes showed that the substitutions caused mechanistic changes. Overall, the hydrophobic and H-bonding properties of Ser-796 result in interactions strong enough to stabilize the open or closed conformations of the loop but weak enough to allow loop movement during the reaction.

Importance of Arg-599 of ß-galactosidase (Escherichia coli) as an anchor for the open conformations of Phe-601 and the active-site loop.

Structural and kinetic data show that Arg-599 of ß-galactosidase plays an important role in anchoring the "open" conformations of both Phe-601 and an active-site loop (residues 794-803). When alanine was substituted for Arg-599, the conformations of Phe-601 and the loop shifted towards the "closed" positions because interactions with the guanidinium side chain were lost. Also, Phe-601, the loop, and Na+, which is ligated by the backbone carbonyl of Phe-601, lost structural order, as indicated by large B-factors. IPTG, a substrate analog, restored the conformations of Phe-601 and the loop of R599A-ß-galactosidase to the open state found with IPTG-complexed native enzyme and partially reinstated order. ᴅ-Galactonolactone, a transition state analog, restored the closed conformations of R599A-ß-galactosidase to those found with ᴅ-galactonolactone-complexed native enzyme and completely re-established the order. Substrates and substrate analogs bound R599A-ß-galactosidase with less affinity because the closed conformation does not allow substrate binding and extra energy is required for Phe-601 and the loop to open. In contrast, transition state analog binding, which occurs best when the loop is closed, was several-fold better. The higher energy level of the enzyme•substrate complex and the lower energy level of the first transition state means that less activation energy is needed to form the first transition state and thus the rate of the first catalytic step (k2) increased substantially. The rate of the second catalytic step (k3) decreased, likely because the covalent form is more stabilized than the second transition state when Phe-601 and the loop are closed. The importance of the guanidinium group of Arg-599 was confirmed by restoration of conformation, order, and activity by guanidinium ions.

Role of Met-542 as a guide for the conformational changes of Phe-601 that occur during the reaction of β-galactosidase (Escherichia coli).

The Met-542 residue of ß-galactosidase is important for the enzyme's activity because it acts as a guide for the movement of the benzyl side chain of Phe-601 between two stable positions. This movement occurs in concert with an important conformational change (open vs. closed) of an active site loop (residues 794-803). Phe-601 and Arg-599, which interact with each other via the π electrons of Phe-601 and the guanidium cation of Arg-599, move out of their normal positions and become disordered when Met-542 is replaced by an Ala residue because of the loss of the guide. Since the backbone carbonyl of Phe-601 is a ligand for Na(+), the Na(+) also moves out of its normal position and becomes disordered; the Na(+) binds about 120 times more poorly. In turn, two other Na(+) ligands, Asn-604 and Asp-201, become disordered. A substrate analog (IPTG) restored Arg-599, Phe-601, and Na(+) to their normal open-loop positions, whereas a transition state analog d-galactonolactone) restored them to their normal closed-loop positions. These compounds also restored order to Phe-601, Asn-604, Asp-201, and Na(+). Binding energy was, however, necessary to restore structure and order. The K(s) values of oNPG and pNPG and the competitive K(i) values of substrate analogs were 90-250 times higher than with native enzyme, whereas the competitive K(i) values of transition state analogs were ~3.5-10 times higher. Because of this, the E•S energy level is raised more than the E•transition state energy level and less activation energy is needed for galactosylation. The galactosylation rates (k2) of M542A-ß-galactosidase therefore increase. However, the rate of degalactosylation (k3) decreased because the E•transition state complex is less stable.

Studies of Glu-416 variants of beta-galactosidase (E. coli) show that the active site Mg(2+) is not important for structure and indicate that the main role of Mg (2+) is to mediate optimization of active site chemistry.

Variants of beta-galactosidase with Valine and with Glutamine replacing Glutamate-416 did not have a Mg(2+) bound at the active site even at high Mg(2+) concentrations (200 mM). They had low catalytic activity and the pH profiles were very different from those of the native enzyme. In addition, substrates, substrate analogs, transition state analogs and galactose bound very poorly. However, the orientation and conformation of the Mg(2+) ligands (residues 416, 418, and 461) as well as the B-factors of these three side chains did not change significantly. The structures, conformations and B-factors of other active site residues were also essentially unchanged. These studies show that the active site Mg(2+) is not necessary for structure and is, therefore, mainly important for modulating the chemistry and mediating the interactions between the active site components.

Direct and indirect roles of His-418 in metal binding and in the activity of beta-galactosidase (E. coli).

The active site of ss-galactosidase (E. coli) contains a Mg(2+) ion ligated by Glu-416, His-418 and Glu-461 plus three water molecules. A Na(+) ion binds nearby. To better understand the role of the active site Mg(2+) and its ligands, His-418 was substituted with Asn, Glu and Phe. The Asn-418 and Glu-418 variants could be crystallized and the structures were shown to be very similar to native enzyme. The Glu-418 variant showed increased mobility of some residues in the active site, which explains why the substitutions at the Mg(2+) site also reduce Na(+) binding affinity. The Phe variant had reduced stability, bound Mg(2+) weakly and could not be crystallized. All three variants have low catalytic activity due to large decreases in the degalactosylation rate. Large decreases in substrate binding affinity were also observed but transition state analogs bound as well or better than to native. The results indicate that His-418, together with the Mg(2+), modulate the central role of Glu-461 in binding and as a general acid/base catalyst in the overall catalytic mechanism. Glucose binding as an acceptor was also dramatically decreased, indicating that His-418 is very important for the formation of allolactose (the natural inducer of the lac operon).

Practical considerations when using temperature to obtain rate constants and activation thermodynamics of enzymes with two catalytic steps: native and N460T-beta-galactosidase (E. coli) as examples.

The values of the rate constants and the associated enthalpies and entropies of enzymes with two catalytic steps can be measured by determining the effects of temperature on the k (cat) values. Practical considerations that should be taken into account when doing this are presented. The narrow temperature range available with enzymes and the sensitivity of pH to temperature mean that special attention to detail must be taken and this study highlights the assiduousness needed. The necessity of conversion of apparent k (cat) to true k (cat) values when assays are done with products having pKa values near to the assay pH is shown and the importance of obtaining sufficient data is emphasized. Reasons that non-linear regression should be used to obtain the estimates of rate constants and activation thermodynamic parameters are given. Other precautions and recommendations are also presented. Results obtained by this method for native beta-galactosidase (E. coli) and for a beta-galactosidase in which a Thr was substituted for Asn-460 were analyzed to demonstrate the valuable mechanistic details of enzymes that can be obtained from studies of this type.

Beta-galactosidase (Escherichia coli) has a second catalytically important Mg2+ site.

It is shown here that Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase has a second Mg2+ binding site that is important for activity. Binding of Mg2+ to the second site caused the k(cat) (with oNPG as the substrate) to increase about 100 s(-1); the Km was not affected. The Kd for binding the second Mg2+ is about 10(-4)M. Since the concentration of free Mg2+ in E. coli is about 1-2 mM, the second site is physiologically significant. Non-polar substitutions (Ala or Leu) for Glu-797, a residue in an active site loop, eliminated the k(cat) increase. This indicates that the second Mg2+ site is near to Glu-797. The Ki values of transition state analogs were decreased by small but statistically significant amounts when the second Mg2+ site was occupied and Arrhenius plots showed that less entropic activation energy is required when the second site is occupied. These inhibitor and temperature results suggest that binding of the second Mg2+ helps to order the active site for stabilization of the transition state.

Trp-49 of the family 3 beta-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger is important for its transglucosidic activity: creation of novel beta-glucosidases with low transglucosidic efficiencies.

Family 3 beta-glucosidases from Aspergillus niger with substitutions for Trp-49 result in the accumulation of very small amounts of transglucosidic adducts, compared to the large amounts that accumulate with wild type enzyme. On the other hand, the amounts of the hydrolytic products that form is decreased by only small amounts. Kinetic studies showed that the main reason for the decreased accumulation of transglucosidic intermediates is a large decrease in binding capacity for Glc at site +1 and an increase in binding ability at site-1. The hydrolytic catalytic constants (kcat(h)) of the substituted enzymes were 3 to 4-fold smaller than those of wild type enzymes, while the Km(h) values were less than 2-fold smaller. The catalytic constants of the transglucosidic reactions (kcat(t) values) were essentially unchanged, but the Km(t) values of the substituted enzymes were about 25-fold larger than those of wild type enzymes. These changes mean that the efficiencies of hydrolytic reactions (kcat(h)/Km(h)) of beta-glucosidases created through substitutions for Trp-49 are less than 2-fold smaller than those of wild type beta-glucosidase, but the efficiencies of the transglucosidic reactions (kcat(t)/Km(t)) of the substituted enzymes are 25 to 30-fold smaller. This results in a significantly decreased formation of transglucosidic intermediates. In addition, the high hydrolytic efficiencies of the substituted enzymes, cause even the very small amounts of transglucosidic intermediates that form to be rapidly hydrolyzed. The overall effect is a very small accumulation of intermediates.

Gata3 participates in a complex transcriptional feedback network to regulate sympathoadrenal differentiation.

Gata3 mutant mice expire of noradrenergic deficiency by embryonic day (E) 11 and can be rescued pharmacologically or, as shown here, by restoring Gata3 function specifically in sympathoadrenal (SA) lineages using the human DBH promoter to direct Gata3 transgenic expression. In Gata3-null embryos, there was significant impairment of SA differentiation and increased apoptosis in adrenal chromaffin cells and sympathetic neurons. Additionally, mRNA analyses of purified chromaffin cells from Gata3 mutants show that levels of Mash1, Hand2 and Phox2b (postulated upstream regulators of Gata3) as well as terminally differentiated SA lineage products (tyrosine hydroxylase, Th, and dopamine beta-hydroxylase, Dbh) are markedly altered. However, SA lineage-specific restoration of Gata3 function in the Gata3 mutant background rescues the expression phenotypes of the downstream, as well as the putative upstream genes. These data not only underscore the hypothesis that Gata3 is essential for the differentiation and survival of SA cells, but also suggest that their differentiation is controlled by mutually reinforcing feedback transcriptional interactions between Gata3, Mash1, Hand2 and Phox2b in the SA lineage.

Trp-262 is a key residue for the hydrolytic and transglucosidic reactivity of the Aspergillus niger family 3 beta-glucosidase: substitution results in enzymes with mainly transglucosidic activity.

Trp-262 of the Aspergillus niger family 3 beta-glucosidase is shown in this report to be a key residue for determining the ratio of this enzyme's hydrolytic and transglucosidic activities. TLC showed that when cellobiose was both the substrate and the acceptor, beta-glucosidases with substitutions (Phe, Ala, Leu, and Cys) for Trp-262 formed very high amounts of transglucosidic adducts. When pNPGlc was the substrate and the acceptor of the substituted beta-glucosidases, only transglucosidic adducts and pNP were produced. Little or no Glc could be detected, indicating that the reactions occurring were mainly transglucosidic. GLC studies with cellobiose quantitatively showed that one Glc was transferred for each free Glc produced. Since this is the maximum level of transglucosidation possible, this again showed that the reaction is predominantly transglucosidic. Analyses of the K(m) and K(i) values of cello-oligosaccharides of increasing length, of the K(i) values of Glc and of the transglucosidic activity at low acceptor concentration, showed that substitution for Trp-262 causes poor binding at the binding site for the non-reducing Glc of the substrate while the affinity for other Glc units is only minimally affected. The acceptor sites become saturated with substrate (acceptor) at the concentrations needed for glucosidic bond cleavage and thus only transglucosidic reactions occur. In addition, the data indicate that substitution for Trp-262 causes the rate of the hydrolysis step (k(3)) to be small.

Transglucosidic reactions of the Aspergillus niger family 3 beta-glucosidase: qualitative and quantitative analyses and evidence that the transglucosidic rate is independent of pH.

The hydrolytic and transglucosidic reactions of the Aspergillus niger Family 3 beta-glucosidase were characterized. Michaelis-Menten plots of the rates of aglycone formation were normal (hyperbolic) at low [substrate]. However, at high [substrate] the rates decreased at pH below approximately 5.5 but increased at pH above approximately 5.5. Each decrease or increase took the form of a second hyperbola adjoining the first. Thin layer chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography, and NMR analyses indicated that the substrates became transglucosidic acceptors when present at high concentrations. When pNPGlc and cellobiose reacted as acceptors, the C6 hydroxyl of the non-reducing substrate component reacted to form beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-6)-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-p-nitrophenol and beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-6)-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-4)-D-glucopyranose, respectively. The acceptor action accounted for the second adjoining hyperbolas. Rate equations were derived for the production of the aglycone and the transglucosidic intermediate, and these equations described the data very well. Hydrolytic Vmax {Vmax(h)}, hydrolytic Km {Km(h)}, transglucosidic Vmax {Vmax(t)}, and transglucosidic Km {Km(t)} values were obtained by non-linear regression analysis using these equations. Vmax(h) pH profiles were bell shaped with optima between pH 4 and 4.5 but the Vmax(t) values did not change substantially between pH 3 and 7. These differences in the pH profiles explain the decreasing and increasing adjoining hyperbolas since Vmax(t) is lower than Vmax(h) at pH less than approximately 5.5 but higher than Vmax(h) at pH greater than approximately 5.5. The reason for these pH effects is that the value of the hydrolytic rate constant (k3) decreases while the value of the transglucosidic rate constant (k4) does not change between pH 3 and 7. The study also showed that gentiobiose forms by an intermolecular reaction of the C6 hydroxyl of Glc rather than an intramolecular reaction and that an equatorial orientation of the C2 hydroxyl, the presence of a C6 primary hydroxyl and beta-linkages with oligosaccharide acceptors are important for acceptor reactivity.

A study of the relationships of interactions between Asp-201, Na+ or K+, and galactosyl C6 hydroxyl and their effects on binding and reactivity of beta-galactosidase.

The interactions between Na+ (and K+) and Asp-201 of beta-galactosidase were studied. Analysis of the changes in Km and Vmax showed that the Kd for Na+ of wild type beta-galactosidase (0.36 +/- 0.09 mM) was about 10x lower than for K+ (3.9 +/- 0.6 mM). The difference is probably because of the size and other physical properties of the ions and the binding pocket. Decreases of Km as functions of Na+ and K+ for oNPG and pNPG and decreases of the Ki of both shallow and deep mode inhibitors were similar, whereas the Km and Ki of substrates and inhibitors without C6 hydroxyls remained constant. Thus, Na+ and K+ are important for binding galactosyl moieties via the C6 hydroxyl throughout catalysis. Na+ and K+ had lesser effects on the Vmax. The Vmax of pNPF and pNPA (substrates that lack a C6 hydroxyl) did not change upon addition of Na+ or K+, showing that the catalytic effects are also mediated via the C6 hydroxyl. Arrhenius plots indicated that Na+, but not K+, caused k3 (degalactosylation) to increase. Na+ also caused the k2 (galactosylation) with oNPG, but not with pNPG, to increase. In contrast, K+ caused the k2 values with both oNPG and pNPG to increase. Na+ and K+ mainly altered the entropies of activation of k2 and k3 with only small effects on the enthalpies of activation. This strongly suggests that only the positioning of the substrate, transition states, and covalent intermediate are altered by Na+ and K+. Further evidence that positioning is important was that substitution of Asp-201 with a Glu caused the Km and Ki values to increase significantly. In addition, the Kd values for Na+ or K+ were 5 to 8 fold higher. The negative charge of Asp-201 was shown to be vital for Na+ and K+ binding. Large amounts of Na+ or K+ had no effect on the very large Km and Ki values of D201N-beta-galactosidase and the Vmax values changed minimally and in a linear rather than hyperbolic way. D201F-beta-galactosidase, with a very bulky hydrophobic side chain in place of Asp, essentially obliterated all binding and catalysis.

Physical and kinetic properties of the family 3 beta-glucosidase from Aspergillus niger which is important for cellulose breakdown.

A beta-glucosidase (BGS) purified from Aspergillus niger cellulase powder (obtained from Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA) was characterized. Electrophoresis, size exclusion chromatography, and dynamic light scattering indicated that the enzyme is a dimer of approximately 200 kDa. Five of the seven N-glycosylated oligosaccharides attached to BGS were composed of D-mannoses attached to a beta(1-4)-N-acetyl-glucosamine-beta-(1-4)-fucose-alpha-(1-6)-N-acetylglucosamine core. The other two were similar, but the cores of these did not have the D-fucose. The enzyme is a retaining glycosidase, and it also has a distinct preference for the beta-configuration at the reducing end of cellobiose. BGS is thermostable up to 65 degrees C but is sensitive to freezing and thawing. The extinction coefficient of BGS was found to be 1.8 cm(-1) mg(-1). All substrates assayed resulted in Eadie-Hofstee plots that were curved at high substrate concentrations. TLC of the reaction products showed that the substrates themselves act as acceptors when present at high concentrations. The transglucosidic activity rate is different from the hydrolytic activity rate and this causes the curvature at high substrate concentrations. The enzyme produces gentiobiose when D-glucose is the acceptor. pH optima of the Vmax(h) with pNPGlc, oNPGlc, and cellobiose were between pH 4 and 4.5, and the Km values decreased at pH values between 3 and 5. Inhibition experiments indicated that the enzyme is specific for glucosyl substrates and suggested that D-gluconolactone is a transition state analog. Studies with cello-oligosaccharides and 3,4-dinitrophenyl-cellobiose showed that BGS is an exo-hydrolase having at least five glucose subsites and that it cleaves from the nonreducing end. The properties of a family 3 beta-glucosidase (BG3) sequenced by Dan et al. [Dan, S., Marton, I., Dekel, M., Bravdo, B-A., He, S., Withers, S. G., and Shoseyov, O. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275: 4973-4980] was also studied and was shown to have very similar properties to those of BGS. Sequence analysis of a portion of BGS verified that these are the same enzymes.

Structural basis for the altered activity of Gly794 variants of Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase.

The open-closed conformational switch in the active site of Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase was studied by X-ray crystallography and enzyme kinetics. Replacement of Gly794 by alanine causes the apoenzyme to adopt the closed rather than the open conformation. Binding of the competitive inhibitor isopropyl thio-beta-D-galactoside (IPTG) requires the mutant enzyme to adopt its less favored open conformation, weakening affinity relative to wild type. In contrast, transition-state inhibitors bind to the enzyme in the closed conformation, which is favored for the mutant, and display increased affinity relative to wild type. Changes in affinity suggest that the free energy difference between the closed and open forms is 1-2 kcal/mol. By favoring the closed conformation, the substitution moves the resting state of the enzyme along the reaction coordinate relative to the native enzyme and destabilizes the ground state relative to the first transition state. The result is that the rate constant for galactosylation is increased but degalactosylation is slower. The covalent intermediate may be better stabilized than the second transition state. The substitution also results in better binding of glucose to both the free and the galactosylated enzyme. However, transgalactosylation with glucose to produce allolactose (the inducer of the lac operon) is slower with the mutant than with the native enzyme. This suggests either that the glucose is misaligned for the reaction or that the galactosylated enzyme with glucose bound is stabilized relative to the transition state for transgalactosylation.

Trp-999 of beta-galactosidase (Escherichia coli) is a key residue for binding, catalysis, and synthesis of allolactose, the natural lac operon inducer.

Trp-999 is a key residue for the action of beta-galactosidases (Escherichia coli). Several site specific substitutions (Phe, Gly, Tyr, Leu) for Trp-999 were made. Each substitution caused greatly decreased affinities for substrates and inhibitors that bind in the "shallow" mode, while the affinities of inhibitors that bind in the "deep" mode were not decreased nearly as much. This shows that Trp-999 is important for binding in the shallow mode. The residue is also very important for binding glucose to galactosyl-beta-galactosidase (as a transgalactosidic acceptor). Substitution greatly diminished the affinity for glucose. Substitutions also changed the activation thermodynamics and, subsequently, the rates of the catalytic reactions. The enthalpies of activation of the glycolytic bond cleavage step (galactosylation, k(2)) became less favorable while the entropies of activation of that step became more favorable as a result of the substitutions. Differing magnitudes of these enthalpic and entropic effects with ONPG as compared to PNPG caused the k(2) values for ONPG to decrease but to increase for PNPG. The enthalpies of activation for the common hydrolytic step (degalactosylation, k(3)) increased while the entropies of activation for this step did not change much. As a result, k(3) became small and rate determining for each substituted enzyme. The substitutions caused the rate constant (k(4)) of the transgalactosidic acceptor reactions with glucose (for the formation of allolactose) to become much larger and of the same order of magnitude as the normally large rate constants for transgalactosidic acceptor reactions with small alcohols. This is probably because glucose can approach with less restriction in the absence of Trp-999. However, since glucose binds very poorly to the galactosyl-beta-galactosidases with substitutions for Trp-999, the proportion of lactose molecules converted to allolactose is small. Thus, Trp-999 is also important for ensuring that an appropriate proportion of lactose is converted to allolactose.